Temperature and time after urine collection affect the detection of phenethylamine, a substance prohibited in sports.

2-Phenylethylamine (phenethylamine) and its derivatives are stimulant drugs, which are prohibited in sports because of their potential performance-enhancing properties. If phenethylamine is detected in an athlete's urine, the athlete may be subjected to serious sanctions, such as disqualification for both domestic and international competitions. Given the serious consequences athletes face for phenethylamine detection, great care should be taken to avoid false positive tests. In forensic medicine, it is widely known that phenethylamine is produced by putrefactive bacteria in autopsy urine samples; it is possible that this process could also occur in an athlete's urine sample without proper storage. In this study, human urine samples were stored at -20, 4, or 22°C for 14 days, and phenethylamine in the samples was quantitatively analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. No phenethylamine was detected in urine samples stored at -20°C throughout 14-day period. Nevertheless, phenethylamine was detected after 6 days in these samples stored at 4°C and after only 1 day in samples stored at 22°C. Additionally, the concentration of phenethylamine in these samples increased each day after detection. These results suggest that urine samples should be stored immediately at -20°C after collection when testing athletes for phenethylamine, especially if the sample must be stored for extended period before testing.

Antihypersensitivity effect of betanin (red beetroot extract) via modulation of microglial activation in a mouse model of neuropathic pain.

BACKGROUND: Neuropathic pain (NeP) medications have several side effects that affect NeP patients' quality of life. Betanin, the most common betacyanin pigment, has been shown to have potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vivo; thus, it has potential as a healthcare treatment. In this study, we focused on betanin (red beetroot extract) as a potential therapy for NeP. METHODS: Mice model of NeP were made by chronic constriction injury (CCI), and the development of mechanical hypersensitivity was confirmed using the von Frey test. Motor coordination and locomotor activity were assessed using open field tests and rotarod tests, respectively. The expression level of glial markers in the spinal cords was analyzed by immunostaining. The direct effects of betanin on microglial cells were investigated using primary cultured microglial cells. RESULTS: In CCI model mice, repeated betanin treatment, both intraperitoneally and orally, attenuated developing mechanical hypersensitivity in a dose-dependent manner without impairing motor coordination. Betanin treatment also attenuated mechanical hypersensitivity that had developed and prevented the onset of mechanical hypersensitivity in CCI mice. Microglial activation in the spinal cord is known to play a key role in the development of NeP; betanin treatment reduced CCI-induced microglial activation in the spinal cord of model mice. Moreover, in primary microglia cultured cells, the activation of microglia by lipopolysaccharide application was suppressed by betanin treatment. CONCLUSION: Betanin treatment appears to ameliorate mechanical hypersensitivity related to CCI-induced NeP in mice by inhibiting microglial activation. SIGNIFICANCE: This article supports findings of the effect of betanin on NeP and provides a potential therapeutic candidate for NeP. Furthermore, elucidating the underlying mechanism of the effect of betanin on microglial activation could assist the development of new treatments for chronic pain.

The role of peripheral corticotropin-releasing factor signaling in a rat model of stress-induced gastric hyperalgesia.

BACKGROUND: Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a common gastrointestinal disorder associated with persistent or recurrent upper gastrointestinal tract symptoms such as pain without any obvious pathological changes. Psychological and psychiatric factors might have a pathogenic role in FD. Changes in the sensation of stomach pain were determined after application of stress to adult rats. The involvement of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), Type 2 CRF receptor (CRF2) and inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) was also investigated in the gastric hyperalgesia observed in this model. RESULTS: Repeated water avoidance stress (WA-S) produced gastric hyperalgesia, with no obvious lesions in the gastric mucosa. Gastric hyperalgesia was inhibited by CRF and CRF2 antagonists, suggesting their involvement in gastric hyperalgesia observed after application of stress. Gastric hyperalgesia was inhibited by IL-6 neutralizing antibody. Immunofluorescence staining demonstrated CRF, CRF2, urocortin (Ucn)1, and Ucn2-positive cells in the gastric mucosa. CRF2-positive cells increased after WA-S, compared to sham stress. CRF2 and Ucn2 were expressed in the mast cells in the gastric mucosa. CONCLUSIONS: CRF2 plays an important role in gastric hyperalgesia produced by stress. CRF2 signaling may be a useful therapeutic target for functional dyspepsia.

CCR2 upregulation in DRG neurons plays a crucial role in gastric hyperalgesia associated with diabetic gastropathy.

Background Diabetic gastropathy is a complex neuromuscular dysfunction of the stomach that commonly occurs in diabetes mellitus. Diabetic patients often present with upper gastrointestinal symptoms, such as epigastric discomfort or pain. The aim of this study was to assess gastric sensation in streptozocin-induced diabetes mellitus (DM) rats and to determine the contribution of C-C motif chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) signaling to gastric hyperalgesia. Results DM rats showed signs of neuropathy (cutaneous mechanical hyperalgesia) from two weeks after streptozocin administration until the end of the experiment. Accelerated solid gastric emptying was observed at two weeks after streptozocin administration compared to the controls. Intense gastric hyperalgesia also developed in DM rats at two weeks after streptozocin administration, which was significantly reduced after intrathecal administration of the CCR2 antagonist INCB3344. Immunochemical analysis indicated that CCR2 expression was substantially upregulated in small and medium-sized dorsal root ganglia neurons of DM rats, although the protein level of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, the preferred ligand for CCR2, was not significantly different between the control and DM groups. Conclusions These data suggest that CCR2 activation in nociceptive dorsal root ganglia neurons plays a role in the pathogenesis of gastric hyperalgesia associated with diabetic gastropathy and that CCR2 antagonist may be a promising treatment for therapeutic intervention.