Novel p21-activated kinase-dependent protrusions characteristically formed at the edge of transformed cells.

During long-term culture, certain lines become neoplastic while accumulating changes in cell shape. Early and late cell populations have characteristic shape phenotypes that have been quantified by computerized assay. Phenotypes are determined from variables describing three-dimensional aspects of the subcellular distribution of mass. The features of cells can be recognized by use of latent factors, which are theoretical variables based on the covariance of the primary variables. Factor #7 represented a cell edge feature different from filopodia. We studied the morphological characteristics and morphogenesis of the feature. Brief exposure of cells from rat tracheal epithelium to phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) enhanced #7 values. The time to reach maximal #7 values was prolonged if PMA was administered with calcium ionophore or lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). Factor #7 was elevated during periods of ruffling suppression and stress fiber reorganization. Cells showing high #7 values were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and found to exhibit strap-shaped and cupola-shaped projections. Because RhoA regulates stress fiber formation, we sought to perturb #7 features by introducing dominant-acting negative and positive constructs of RhoA, RhoA-N19, and RhoA-V14. Neither affected #7 values. Although overexpression of the kinase inhibitory domain of p21-activated kinase 1 (PAK) had no effect on #7 values, they were affected by overexpression of a domain binding PAK-interacting guanine nucleotide exchange factor (PIX). Because a PAK-PIX complex is implicated in the remodeling of focal complexes (FCs) and recycling of PAK to the cytoplasm, the results implicate a component of FCs in the formation of #7 features. The data suggested that feature formation is driven by activated Cdc42-binding kinase (ACK) and Rac. Moreover, they suggested that the #7 protrusions are neurite-like structures and that their development involves FC regulation.

Biocomplexity: adaptive behavior in complex stochastic dynamical systems.

Existing methods of complexity research are capable of describing certain specifics of bio systems over a given narrow range of parameters but often they cannot account for the initial emergence of complex biological systems, their evolution, state changes and sometimes-abrupt state transitions. Chaos tools have the potential of reaching to the essential driving mechanisms that organize matter into living substances. Our basic thesis is that while established chaos tools are useful in describing complexity in physical systems, they lack the power of grasping the essence of the complexity of life. This thesis illustrates sensory perception of vertebrates and the operation of the vertebrate brain. The study of complexity, at the level of biological systems, cannot be completed by the analytical tools, which have been developed for non-living systems. We propose a new approach to chaos research that has the potential of characterizing biological complexity. Our study is biologically motivated and solidly based in the biodynamics of higher brain function. Our biocomplexity model has the following features, (1) it is high-dimensional, but the dimensionality is not rigid, rather it changes dynamically; (2) it is not autonomous and continuously interacts and communicates with individual environments that are selected by the model from the infinitely complex world; (3) as a result, it is adaptive and modifies its internal organization in response to environmental factors by changing them to meet its own goals; (4) it is a distributed object that evolves both in space and time towards goals that is continually re-shaping in the light of cumulative experience stored in memory; (5) it is driven and stabilized by noise of internal origin through self-organizing dynamics. The resulting theory of stochastic dynamical systems is a mathematical field at the interface of dynamical system theory and stochastic differential equations. This paper outlines several possible avenues to analyze these systems. Of special interest are input-induced and noise-generated, or spontaneous state-transitions and related stability issues.

Cdc42Hs facilitates cytoskeletal reorganization and neurite outgrowth by localizing the 58-kD insulin receptor substrate to filamentous actin.

Cdc42Hs is involved in cytoskeletal reorganization and is required for neurite outgrowth in N1E-115 cells. To investigate the molecular mechanism by which Cdc42Hs regulates these processes, a search for novel Cdc42Hs protein partners was undertaken by yeast two-hybrid assay. Here, we identify the 58-kD substrate of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase (IRS-58) as a Cdc42Hs target. IRS-58 is a brain-enriched protein comprising at least four protein-protein interaction sites: a Cdc42Hs binding site, an Src homology (SH)3-binding site, an SH3 domain, and a tryptophan, tyrptophan (WW)-binding domain. Expression of IRS-58 in Swiss 3T3 cells leads to reorganization of the filamentous (F)-actin cytoskeleton, involving loss of stress fibers and formation of filopodia and clusters. In N1E-115 cells IRS-58 induces neurite outgrowth with high complexity. Expression of a deletion mutant of IRS-58, which lacks the SH3- and WW-binding domains, induced neurite extension without complexity in N1E-115 cells. In Swiss 3T3 cells and N1E-115 cells, IRS-58 colocalizes with F-actin in clusters and filopodia. An IRS-58(1267N) mutant unable to bind Cdc42Hs failed to localize with F-actin to induce neurite outgrowth or significant cytoskeletal reorganization. These results suggest that Cdc42Hs facilitates cytoskeletal reorganization and neurite outgrowth by localizing protein complexes via adaptor proteins such as IRS-58 to F-actin.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Cdc42, and Rac1 act downstream of Ras in integrin-dependent neurite outgrowth in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells.

Ras and Rho family GTPases have been ascribed important roles in signalling pathways determining cellular morphology and growth. Here we investigated the roles of the GTPases Ras, Cdc42, Rac1, and Rho and that of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) in the pathway leading from serum starvation to neurite outgrowth in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells. Serum-starved cells grown on a laminin matrix exhibited integrin-dependent neurite outgrowth. Expression of dominant negative mutants of Ras, PI 3-kinase, Cdc42, or Rac1 all blocked this neurite outgrowth, while constitutively activated mutants of Ras, PI 3-kinase, or Cdc42 were each sufficient to promote outgrowth even in the presence of serum. A Ras(H40C;G12V) double mutant which binds preferentially to PI 3-kinase also promoted neurite formation. Activated Ras(G12V)-induced outgrowth required PI 3-kinase activity, but activated PI 3-kinase-induced outgrowth did not require Ras activity. Although activated Rac1 by itself did not induce neurites, neurite outgrowth induced by activated Cdc42(G12V) was Rac1 dependent. Cdc42(G12V)-induced neurites appeared to lose their normal polarization, almost doubling the average number of neurites produced by a single cell. Outgrowth induced by activated Ras or PI 3-kinase required both Cdc42 and Rac1 activity, but Cdc42(G12V)-induced outgrowth did not need Ras or PI 3-kinase activity. Active Rho(G14V) reduced outgrowth promoted by Ras(G12V). Finally, expression of dominant negative Jun N-terminal kinase or extracellular signal-regulated kinase did not inhibit outgrowth, suggesting these pathways are not essential for this process. Our results suggest a hierarchy of signalling where Ras signals through PI 3-kinase to Cdc42 and Rac1 activation (and Rho inactivation), culminating in neurite outgrowth. Thus, in the absence of serum factors, Ras may initiate cell cycle arrest and terminal differentiation in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells.

Cryptic Rac-binding and p21(Cdc42Hs/Rac)-activated kinase phosphorylation sites of NADPH oxidase component p67(phox).

Rac1 is a member of the Rho family of small molecular mass GTPases that act as molecular switches to control actin-based cell morphology as well as cell growth and differentiation. Rac1 and Rac2 are specifically required for superoxide formation by components of the NADPH oxidase. In binding assays, Rac1 interacts directly with p67(phox), but not with the other oxidase components: cytochrome b, p40(phox), or p47(phox) (Prigmore, E., Ahmed, S., Best, A., Kozma, R. , Manser, E., Segal, A. W., and Lim, L. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 10717-10722). Here, the Rac1/2 interaction with p67(phox) has been characterized further. Rac1 and Rac2 can bind to p67(phox) amino acid residues 170-199, and the N terminus (amino acids 1-192) of p67(phox) can be used as a specific inhibitor of Rac signaling. Deletion of p67(phox) C-terminal sequences (amino acids 193-526), the C-terminal SH3 domain (amino acids 470-526), or the polyproline-rich motif (amino acids 226-236) stimulates Rac1 binding by approximately 8-fold. p21(Cdc42Hs/Rac)-activated kinase (PAK) phosphorylates p67(phox) amino acid residues adjacent to the Rac1/2-binding site, and this phosphorylation is stimulated by deletion of the C-terminal SH3 domain or the polyproline-rich motif. These data suggest a role for cryptic Rac-binding and PAK phosphorylation sites of p67(phox) in control of the NADPH oxidase.

Rho family GTPases and neuronal growth cone remodelling: relationship between increased complexity induced by Cdc42Hs, Rac1, and acetylcholine and collapse induced by RhoA and lysophosphatidic acid.

Rho family GTPases have been assigned important roles in the formation of actin-based morphologies in nonneuronal cells. Here we show that microinjection of Cdc42Hs and Rac1 promoted formation of filopodia and lamellipodia in N1E-115 neuroblastoma growth cones and along neurites. These actin-containing structures were also induced by injection of Clostridium botulinum C3 exoenzyme, which abolishes RhoA-mediated functions such as neurite retraction. The C3 response was inhibited by coinjection with the dominant negative mutant Cdc42Hs(T17N), while the Cdc42Hs response could be competed by coinjection with RhoA. We also demonstrate that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) can induce filopodia and lamellipodia on neuroblastoma growth cones via muscarinic ACh receptor activation, but only when applied in a concentration gradient. ACh-induced formation of filopodia and lamellipodia was inhibited by preinjection with the dominant negative mutants Cdc42Hs(T17N) and Rac1(T17N), respectively. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-induced neurite retraction, which is mediated by RhoA, was inhibited by ACh, while C3 exoenzyme-mediated neurite outgrowth was inhibited by injection with Cdc42Hs(T17N) or Rac1(T17N). Together these results suggest that there is competition between the ACh- and LPA-induced morphological pathways mediated by Cdc42Hs and/or Rac1 and by RhoA, leading to either neurite development or collapse.

The GTPase-activating protein n-chimaerin cooperates with Rac1 and Cdc42Hs to induce the formation of lamellipodia and filopodia.

n-Chimaerin is a GTPase-activating protein (GAP) mainly for Rac1 and less so for Cdc42Hs in vitro. The GAP activity of n-chimaerin is regulated by phospholipids and phorbol esters. Microinjection of Rac1 and Cdc42Hs into mammalian cells induces formation of the actin-based structures lamellipodia and filopodia, respectively, with the former being prevented by coinjection of the chimaerin GAP domain. Strikingly, microinjection of the full-length n-chimaerin into fibroblasts and neuroblastoma cells induces the simultaneous formation of lamellipodia and filopodia. These structures undergo cycles of dissolution and formation, resembling natural morphological events occurring at the leading edge of fibroblasts and neuronal growth cones. The effects of n-chimaerin on formation of lamellipodia and filopodia were inhibited by dominant negative Rac1(T17N) and Cdc42Hs(T17N), respectively. n-Chimaerin's effects were also inhibited by coinjection with Rho GDP dissociation inhibitor or by treatment with phorbol ester. A mutant n-chimaerin with no GAP activity and impaired p21 binding was ineffective in inducing morphological changes, while a mutant lacking GAP activity alone was effective. Microinjected n-chimaerin colocalized in situ with F-actin. Taken together, these results suggest that n-chimaerin acts synergistically with Rac1 and Cdc42Hs to induce actin-based morphological changes and that this action involves Rac1 and Cdc42Hs binding but not GAP activity. Thus, GAPs may have morphological functions in addition to downregulation of GTPases.

The Ras-related GTPase Rac1 binds tubulin.

The Ras-related Rho family are involved in controlling actin-based changes in cell morphology. Microinjection of Rac1, RhoA, and Cdc42Hs into Swiss 3T3 cells induces pinocytosis and membrane ruffling, stress fiber formation, and filopodia formation, respectively. To identify target proteins involved in these signaling pathways cell extracts immobilized on nitrocellulose have been probed with [gamma-32P]GTP-labeled Rac1, RhoA, and Cdc42Hs. We have identified two 55-kDa brain proteins which bind Rac1 but not RhoA or Cdc42Hs. These 55-kDa proteins were abundant, had pI values of around 5.5, and could be purified by Q-Sepharose chromatography. The characteristics on two-dimensional gel analysis suggested the proteins comprised alpha- and beta-tubulin. Indeed, beta-tubulin specific antibodies detected one of the purified 55-kDa proteins. Rac1 bound pure tubulin (purified by cycles of polymerization and depolymerization) only in the GTP-bound state. The GTPase negative Rac1 point mutants, G12V and Q61L, did not significantly affect the ability of Rac1 to interact with tubulin while the "effector-site" mutant D38A prevented interaction. These results suggest that the Rac1-tubulin interaction may play a role in Rac1 function.

A 68-kDa kinase and NADPH oxidase component p67phox are targets for Cdc42Hs and Rac1 in neutrophils.

Cdc42Hs and Rac1 are members of the Ras superfamily of small molecular weight (p21) GTP binding proteins. Cdc42Hs induces filopodia formation in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts while Rac1 induces membrane ruffling. Rac1 also activates superoxide production by the components (cytochrome b, p40phox, p67phox, and p47phox) of the neutrophil oxidase. To isolate target proteins involved in these signaling pathways, we have probed proteins from neutrophil cytosol immobilized on nitrocellulose with Cdc42Hs labeled with [gamma-32P]GTP. Cdc42Hs probe detected binding protein(s) of 66-68 kDa in neutrophil cytosol. Rac1 probe also detected the 66-68-kDa proteins, suggesting the possibility that p67phox may be a binding protein for both of these p21 proteins. Indeed, Cdc42Hs and Rac1 were found to bind specifically to purified recombinant p67phox but not the other oxidase components. A 68-kDa Cdc42Hs binding protein was purified from neutrophil cytosol and found to be related to the recently described p65pak kinase from brain. These results suggest that the p68 kinase and p67phox are targets for Cdc42Hs and Rac1 in neutrophils.

The Ras-related protein Cdc42Hs and bradykinin promote formation of peripheral actin microspikes and filopodia in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts.

The Ras-related protein Cdc42 plays a role in yeast cell budding and polarity. Two related proteins, Rac1 and RhoA, promote formation in mammalian cells of membrane ruffles and stress fibers, respectively, which contain actin microfilaments. We now show that microinjection of the related human Cdc42Hs into Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts induced the formation of peripheral actin microspikes, determined by staining with phalloidin. A proportion of these microspikes was found to be components of filopodia, as analyzed by time-lapse phase-contrast microscopy. The formation of filopodia was also found to be promoted by Cdc42Hs microinjection. This was followed by activation of Rac1-mediated membrane ruffling. Treatment with bradykinin also promoted formation of microspikes and filopodia as well as subsequent effects similar to that seen upon Cdc42Hs microinjection. These effects of bradykinin were specifically inhibited by prior microinjection of dominant negative Cdc42HsT17N, suggesting that bradykinin acts by activating cellular Cdc42Hs. Since filopodia have been ascribed an important sensory function in fibroblasts and are required for guidance of neuronal growth cones, these results indicate that Cdc42Hs plays an important role in determining mammalian cell morphology.

Breakpoint cluster region gene product-related domain of n-chimaerin. Discrimination between Rac-binding and GTPase-activating residues by mutational analysis.

The breakpoint cluster region gene product (Bcr) is a GTPase-activating protein (GAP) for members of the Rho family, Cdc42Hs, and Rac1, as is the brain protein n-chimaerin. At least 15 proteins have sequence identity to the GAP domain (150 amino acid residues) of Bcr. The widespread occurrence of proteins that possess sequence identity to the Bcr-related GAP domain makes it especially important to understand its structure/function relationships. Amino acid sequence alignment of these proteins reveals three blocks of conservation in the GAP domain. Here, we present a mutational analysis of this domain using n-chimaerin sequences. Ten mutations were constructed (at least two in each of the blocks of conservation), expressed as glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins in Escherichia coli, and purified. Seven of the mutants, including deletions, still possessed GAP activity for Rac1. Three of the mutants had no Rac1-GAP activity but were still able to bind Rac1. IC50 values obtained from competition experiments suggest that n-chimaerin and the mutants with no GAP activity bound Rac1 with similar apparent binding constants. Thus, this mutant analysis allows discrimination between Rac1-binding and Rac1 GTPase- activating residues.

A novel functional target for tumor-promoting phorbol esters and lysophosphatidic acid. The p21rac-GTPase activating protein n-chimaerin.

Phorbol esters are potent tumor promoters widely used for investigating mechanisms of cell transformation with protein kinase C (PKC) generally considered as being their only protein target. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) can act as a mitogen, affecting cell shape and the actin cytoskeleton. There is no identified functional target for LPA. We have isolated a cDNA encoding a protein n-chimaerin that is a high affinity phorbol ester receptor and a p21rac-GTPase activating protein (rac-GAP). p21rac is a member of the ras superfamily of small molecular weight GTP-binding proteins, which stimulates actin microfilament formation in Swiss 3T3 cells and superoxide production by the neutrophil oxidase. We now show that the rac-GAP activity of n-chimaerin is stimulated by phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidic acid (PA) and that phorbol esters can synergize with PS and PA. LPA, in contrast, was found to inhibit n-chimaerin. The phospholipid/phorbol ester modulation of the rac-GAP activity requires the PKC-like cysteine-rich domain of n-chimaerin. Thus, n-chimaerin is a novel functional target (distinct from PKC) for both phorbol esters and LPA. These data suggest that the physiological role of n-chimaerin is to link events initiating at the cell surface/membrane with p21rac effector pathways.

The Caenorhabditis elegans unc-13 gene product is a phospholipid-dependent high-affinity phorbol ester receptor.

The Caenorhabditis elegans unc-13 mutant is a member of a class of mutants that have un-coordinated movement. Mutations of the unc-13 gene cause diverse defects in C. elegans, including abnormal neuronal connections and modified synaptic transmission in the nervous system. unc-13 cDNA encodes a protein (UNC-13) of 1734 amino acid residues with a predicted molecular mass of 198 kDa and sequence identity to the C1/C2 regions but not to the catalytic domain of the ubiquitously expressed protein kinase C family [Maruyama & Brenner (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88, 5729-5733]. To characterize the phorbol ester binding site of the UNC-13 protein, cDNA encoding the C1/C2-like regions (amino acid residues 546-940) was expressed in Escherichia coli and the 43 kDa recombinant protein was purified. Phorbol ester binding to the 43 kDa protein was zinc- and phospholipid-dependent, stereospecific and of high affinity (Kd 67 nM). UNC-13 specific antisera detected a protein of approx. 190 kDa in wild-type (N2) but not in mutant (e1019) C. elegans cell extracts. We conclude that UNC-13 represents a novel class of phorbol ester receptor.

The cysteine-rich domain of human proteins, neuronal chimaerin, protein kinase C and diacylglycerol kinase binds zinc. Evidence for the involvement of a zinc-dependent structure in phorbol ester binding.

Diacylglycerol (DG) and its analogue phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) activate the ubiquitous phospholipid/Ca2(+)-dependent protein kinase, protein kinase C (PKC), and cause it to become tightly associated with membranes. DG is produced transiently as it is rapidly metabolized by DG kinase (DGK) to phosphatidic acid. Phorbol esters such as PMA are not metabolized and induced a prolonged membrane association of PKC. Until recently, PKC was the only known phorbol ester receptor. We have shown that a novel brain-specific cDNA, neuronal chimaerin (NC), expressed in Escherichia coli, binds phorbol ester with high affinity, stereospecificity and a phospholipid requirement [Ahmed, Kozma, Monfries, Hall, Lim, Smith & Lim (1990) Biochem. J. 272, 767-773]. The proteins NC, PKC and DGK possess a cysteine-rich domain with the motif HX11/12CX2CXnCX2CX4HX2CX6/7C (where n varies between 12 and 14). The partial motif, CX2CX13CX2C, is present in a number of transcription factors including the steroid hormone receptors and the yeast protein, GAL4, in which zinc plays a structural role of co-ordinating cysteine residues and is essential for DNA binding (protein-nucleic acid interactions). The cysteine-rich domain of NC and PKC is required for phospholipid-dependent phorbol is required for phospholipid-dependent phorbol ester binding, suggesting an involvement of this domain in protein-lipid interactions. We have expressed recombinant NC, PKC and DGK glutathione S-transferase and TrpE fusion proteins in E. coli to investigate the relationship between the cysteine-rich motif, HX11/12CX2CX10-14CX2CX4HX2CX6/7C, zinc and phorbol ester binding. The cysteine-rich domain of NC, PKC and DGK bound 65Zn2+ but only NC and PKC bound [3H]phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate. When NC and PKC were subjected to treatments known to remove metal ions from GAL4 and the human glucocorticoid receptor, phorbol ester binding was inhibited. These data provide evidence for the role of a zinc-dependent structure in phorbol ester binding.

Human brain n-chimaerin cDNA encodes a novel phorbol ester receptor.

A human brain-specific cDNA encoding n-chimaerin, a protein of predicted molecular mass 34 kDa, has sequence identity with two different proteins: protein kinase C (PKC) at the N-terminus and BCR protein [product of the breakpoint-cluster-region (BCR) gene, involved in Philadelphia chromosome translocation] at the C-terminus [Hall, Monfries, Smith, Lim, Kozma, Ahmed, Vannaisungham, Leung & Lim (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 211, 11-16]. The sequence identity of n-chimaerin with PKC includes the cysteine-rich motif CX2CX13CX2CX7CX7C, and amino acids upstream of the first cysteine residue, but not the kinase domain. This region of PKC has been implicated in the binding of diacylglycerol and phorbol esters in a phospholipid-dependent fashion. Part of this cysteine-rich motif (CX2CX13CX2C) has the potential of forming a 'Zn-finger' structure. Phorbol esters cause a variety of physiological changes and are among the most potent tumour promoters that have been described. PKC is the only known protein target for these compounds. We now report that n-chimaerin cDNA encodes a novel phospholipid-dependent phorbol ester receptor, with the cysteine-rich region being responsible for this activity. This finding has wide implications for previous studies equating phorbol ester binding with the presence of PKC in the brain.

[Isoflurane. (Comparison with halothane and fentanyl anesthesia)]. / Az izofluránról. (Halotán és fentanyl anesztéziával való összehasonlításban).

Authors carried out during one and a half year 135 anaesthesias with isoflurane. 104 of them was administered in closed, and 31 in semi-closed system. The results were compared with halothane and fentanyl anaesthesias. After brief review of the literature about isoflurane, authors evaluated their own experiences The most favourable result was the stability of the metabolic acid-base balance. One explanation of this feature is the undisturbed oxygenation of the tissues. The circulation was characterized by mild tachycardia and by transitory decrease of the systolic blood pressure. The circulatory parameters were better in closed system, than in semi-closed one, and within the former system the most stable circulation was achieved either by an empirical syringe-injection administration, or by vaporizer administration using 5 -3,8 -3,4 -3 -2,8 -2,5 -2,3 etc.% dosage schedule. The dose-related respiratory depression was of lesser degree, than with fentanyl, and was equal to that with halothane. It was found an also dose-related saving in muscle relaxants. The blood sugar level increased considerably and more prolonged, than with the control anaesthetics. The high cost of the isoflurane (and of any other inhalational agent) was partly compensated by using it in a closed system. Authors found the isoflurane--based on their own experiences and on the data of the literature--suitable for prolonged and repeated anaesthesias too, but they referred to the circumstances also, which required closer attention.

Novel human brain cDNA encoding a 34,000 Mr protein n-chimaerin, related to both the regulatory domain of protein kinase C and BCR, the product of the breakpoint cluster region gene.

A novel human brain complementary DNA sequence encodes n-chimaerin, a 34,000 Mr protein. A single cysteine-rich sequence CX2CX13CX2CX7CX7C in the N-terminal half of n-chimaerin shares almost 50% identity with corresponding sequences in the C1 regulatory domain of protein kinase C. The C-terminal half of n-chimaerin has 42% identity with the C-terminal region (amino acid residues 1050 to 1225) of BCR, the product of the breakpoint cluster region gene involved in Philadelphia (Ph') chromosome translocation. n-Chimaerin mRNA (2.2 x 10(3) base-pairs) is specifically expressed in the brain, with the highest amounts being in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex. The mRNA has a neuronal distribution and is expressed in neuroblastoma cells, but not in C6 glioma or primary astrocyte cultures. The similarity of two separate regions of n-chimaerin to domains of protein kinase C and BCR has intriguing implications with respect to its evolutionary origins, its function in the brain and potential phorbol-ester-binding properties.

Analysis of peripheral maternal blood samples for the presence of placenta-derived cells using Y-specific probes and McAb H315.

Using flow cytometry, a small number of cellular elements expressing on their surface an antigen (H315) produced by placental trophoblast have been observed in the peripheral blood of pregnant women. This is in agreement with previous observations (Covone et al., 1984a,b) and recent results documenting the presence of a small number of H315-positive cells in the peripheral circulation of pregnant women (Pool et al., 1987; Caligaris-Cappio and Camaschella, personal communication). When DNA extracts, prepared from H315-positive cells sorted from maternal samples were tested by Southern transfer using Y-specific probes (Y190 or Y411), a Y-specific band could not be detected in any sample analysed, irrespective of the sex of the fetus. In control samples from healthy male donors, a Y-specific band could be detected with as few as 800 46,XY cells without interference from contaminating 46,XX cells. H315-positive cellular elements, sorted by flow cytometry from the maternal peripheral blood, were also examined in interphase using Y-specific probes (Y190 and Y431) and an in situ biotin-avidin fluorescent hybridization technique. The great majority of the sorted H315-positive cellular elements did not show a fluorescent Y body, even in samples from mothers who later delivered a male infant. While previous investigations had failed to demonstrate the in vitro uptake of H315 antigen onto the surface of leucocytes from healthy males incubated in maternal sera, the present studies demonstrate that cells from male donors could adsorb this antigen following incubation in extracts prepared from retroplacental blood. These findings thus suggest that the majority of H315-positive nucleated cells previously detected by flow cytometry in the peripheral circulation of pregnant women are maternal cells which have adsorbed H315 antigen in vivo, either in soluble form or as small cell membrane fragments.