Pharmacokinetics of the aldose reductase inhibitor tolrestat: studies in healthy young and elderly male and female subjects and in subjects with diabetes.

Tolrestat is an aldose reductase inhibitor undergoing clinical trials in diabetic subjects that may reduce the severity of chronic tissue damage associated with hyperglycemia. These studies were conducted to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of tolrestat in healthy young and elderly male and female subjects and in young and elderly subjects with diabetes. The drug was administered in a multiple-dose regimen, and steady-state parameters were obtained. There were no important gender-related differences, but mean values for apparent oral clearance, renal clearance, and corresponding unbound parameters were significantly lower for the elderly healthy subjects than for the young healthy subjects. The drug is highly bound to plasma proteins, and the unbound fraction (0.75%) did not differ among the subjects. The results from young and elderly diabetic subjects suggest that diabetes per se has no influence on tolrestat disposition but that there is an age-related reduction in apparent oral clearance (30 versus 18 ml/hr/kg) and a corresponding increase in the minimum steady-state plasma concentration (1.2 versus 1.9 micrograms/ml). These data indicate a possible need to reduce the dose of tolrestat in elderly subjects, assuming the same concentration-response relationship.

fusca3: A Heterochronic Mutation Affecting Late Embryo Development in Arabidopsis.

Molecular studies of late embryogenesis and seed development have emphasized differential gene expression as a means of identifying discrete stages of embryogenesis. Little has been done to identify factors that regulate the length of a given developmental stage or the degree of overlap between adjacent developmental programs. We designed a genetic screen to identify mutations that disrupt late embryo development in Arabidopsis without loss of hormonal responses. One such mutation, fusca3 (fus3), alters late embryo functions, such as the establishment of dormancy and desiccation tolerance, and reduces storage protein levels. fus3 cotyledons bear trichomes, and their ultrastructure is similar to that of leaf primordia. Immature fus3 embryos enter germinative development, and the shoot apical meristems develop leaf primordia before seed desiccation begins. The cotyledons resemble leaf primordia, yet retain some cotyledon characteristics; thus, cotyledon- and leaf-specific functions are expressed simultaneously. Together, these observations are consistent with a heterochronic interpretation of the fus3 mutation.

Concomitant etodolac affects neither the unbound clearance nor the pharmacologic effect of warfarin.

Potential interactions between the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory etodolac and the anticoagulant warfarin were studied in 18 healthy subjects by use of a randomized, three-period crossover design. Each treatment lasted 2 1/2 days and consisted of warfarin, etodolac, or both drugs. Prothrombin time was determined daily during each warfarin period to measure pharmacologic effect. Total serum concentration and unbound fraction of both drugs were determined over the dose interval after the last dose of the study drug(s). Concomitant etodolac did not affect the prothrombin time response or the unbound clearance of warfarin. During concomitant etodolac administration, the median peak concentration of total warfarin was significantly decreased by 19% (p = 0.005), median total clearance was significantly increased by 13% (p = 0.0123), and the unbound fraction tended to increase (median unbound fraction of warfarin, 1.245% with etodolac and 1.045% without etodolac; p = 0.0979; not statistically significant). These observations suggest a small displacement of warfarin from serum protein by etodolac or a metabolite of etodolac. No etodolac pharmacokinetic parameter was significantly affected by concomitant warfarin administration. Thus etodolac does not appear to alter the unbound clearance of warfarin or augment its pharmacologic effect. Nevertheless, it is prudent that clinical monitoring be done for individuals taking these two compounds concomitantly.

A high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of venlafaxine and O-desmethylvenlafaxine in biological fluids.

A rapid, accurate, and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method for simultaneous determination of venlafaxine (V) and O-desmethylvenlafaxine (ODV) in plasma and urine has been developed. V and ODV are extracted from plasma using a liquid-liquid extraction procedure, chromatographed on a Supelcosil LC-8DB column, and quantitated by UV detection at 229 nm. Linearity was established over the range 10-500 ng/ml for V and 7.2-720 ng/ml for ODV using 1.0 ml of human, rat, dog, and mouse plasma. For urine, for both analytes, an analytical range 0.1-10.0 micrograms/ml was established. Accuracy of > +/- 10% about the theoretical mean was achieved for all matrices, with intra- and interday coefficients of variation for precision of < 10%. Endogenous components in plasma and/or urine or known metabolites of V do not interfere in the determination of the analytes. For both V and ODV a quantitation limit of 10 ng/ml for plasma was adequate for their estimation over a period of three half-lives, following administration of a pharmacologic dose in man, and the limit of 0.1 microgram/ml, for urine, can monitor excretion of as little as 0.5% of the dose.

Tolrestat pharmacokinetics in rat peripheral nerve.

The clinical efficacy of an aldose reductase (AR) inhibitor in diabetic polyneuropathy depends on its bioavailability at the site(s) of AR in peripheral nerves. Accordingly, the link between the concentration of the AR inhibitor, tolrestat, and the extent of its inhibition of the AR-catalyzed polyol production was investigated in sciatic nerves of galactosemic rats. Tolrestat was administered by gavage (1 x 150 mg/kg, or 5, and 15 mg/kg/day for 15 days to attain steady state as estimated from the 53-h half-life of tolrestat determined in rat nerve); subsequently, at six time intervals, ranging from 4 to 59 days, rats were given access for 4 days to a 20% galactose diet, and killed. At every time point, the composite tolrestat concentration in the nerve correlated with the percentage decrease in nerve galactitol (r = 0.857, p = 0.0015). Because the latter should reflect the extent of nerve AR inhibition by tolrestat, the concentration of "free" tolrestat available at the site(s) of AR in the nerve was estimated from the tolrestat concentration/percent AR inhibition plot obtained in vitro. The estimated amount of tolrestat present at the site(s) of nerve AR represented 0.4% of the composite tolrestat concentration measured in the nerve. The results support the view that the effectiveness of an AR inhibitor in peripheral nerve depends on its pharmacokinetics in the nerve, i.e., on its uptake, nonspecific binding to cellular constituents, and elimination.

The dissolution and bioavailability of etodolac from capsules exposed to conditions of high relative humidity and temperatures.

The dissolution and bioavailability of etodolac from capsules exposed to high relative humidity and temperature were compared to those from capsules stored at room temperature (RT). Dissolution of stressed and control capsules was evaluated using a USP basket apparatus at 100 rpm with 900 mL pH 7.5 phosphate buffer (0.05 M) at 37 degrees C. The dissolution of etodolac from capsules exposed to stressed conditions was also evaluated with enzymes (pancreatin, 1%, w/v) added to the dissolution medium. The bioavailability of etodolac from capsules exposed to stressed conditions was compared in both dogs and humans to capsules stored at RT conditions. Capsules, 200 and 300 mg, exposed to stressed conditions failed the dissolution (without enzymes) specification [not less than 85% released (80% Q) in 30 min]. However, upon enzyme addition, all capsules met the specification. The rate and extent of absorption from these 200 and 300 mg etodolac capsules in dogs were equivalent to those from capsules stored at RT conditions that passed the dissolution specification. Similarly, the bioavailability of etodolac from 300 mg capsules that failed the dissolution specification upon exposure to stressed conditions was equivalent to that of control capsules in 24 adult male volunteers. Thus, an in vitro dissolution test with enzymes provides a better indication of stressed capsule performance in vivo.

The effect of renal disease on tolrestat pharmacokinetics.

Many patients with diabetes who may benefit from treatment with tolrestat, a new aldose reductase inhibitor, will have nephropathy. Therefore the effect of renal dysfunction on the pharmacokinetics of tolrestat was evaluated in eight subjects maintained on hemodialysis, 11 subjects with partial renal impairment (creatinine clearance values ranging from 14 to 80 ml/min/1.73 m2), and eight normal subjects. Each subject received a single oral dose of 200 mg tolrestat. Blood and urine samples were collected during a 48-hour period, and tolrestat concentrations were measured by HPLC. Renal dysfunction had no apparent effect on the rate of absorption or volume of distribution of tolrestat. However, tolrestat clearance was significantly reduced from 30 +/- 3 (SD) ml/hr/kg in the normal subjects to 15 +/- 5 ml/hr/kg in the subjects receiving dialysis, and tolrestat half-life was prolonged from 11 to 16 hours. Therefore a reduction in tolrestat dose is suggested for patients with severe renal impairment.

Phototoxic and photochemical properties of sanguinarine.

Sanguinarine, a commercial drug exhibiting antimicrobial and antitumor properties, was studied with respect to its basic photochemical characteristics and also with regard to its phototoxicity to mosquito larvae (Aedes atropalpus). Sanguinarine proved to be clearly phototoxic to larvae, with an LD50 of 0.096 mg/mL with near UV exposure as compared with 23.3 mg/mL without. Flash photolysis experiments enabled the study of the triplet state of sanguinarine to be undertaken. Quenching by oxygen occurs with a rate constant of 6 x 10(9) M-1s-1 and time-resolved emission studies indicate that sanguinarine produces a significant amount of singlet oxygen (phi delta = 0.16) as does the isoquinoline alkaloid, berberine (phi delta = 0.25). These values represent the first direct quantitative measurements of photosensitization parameters of these compounds. Additionally, sanguinarine exhibits efficient electron donation properties, undergoing reaction with methyl viologen with a rate constant greater than 10(10) M-1s-1, but is a poor electron acceptor. Phototoxicity of sanguinarine can thus be explained in terms of its photosensitization properties.

Metabolic disposition and pharmacokinetics of pelrinone, a new cardiotonic drug, in laboratory animals and man.

The metabolic disposition of pelrinone, a cardiotonic drug, was studied in mouse, rat, rabbit, dog, monkey and man. Pelrinone was rapidly and extensively absorbed in rodents, dogs, monkeys and man. Except in rabbits, the major portion of the serum radioactivity was due to parent drug. Pelrinone was moderately bound to human serum proteins and weakly bound to serum proteins from animals. Radioactive compounds were rapidly eliminated from rat tissues with the highest concentrations found in organs associated with absorption and elimination. After a 1.0 mg/kg i.v. dose, the rapid elimination of pelrinone from mouse, rat and dog serum precluded estimation of an elimination half life (t1/2). However, after higher oral or i.v. doses, a more prolonged elimination phase was apparent and the t1/2 of pelrinone ranged from 8-10 h in rodents and dogs. In human subjects given escalating oral or i.v. doses of pelrinone, the elimination t1/2 was independent of dose and averaged 1-2 h. The serum AUC of pelrinone was linearly dose-related following oral doses up to 20 mg/kg in dogs and 100 mg in man. In mice, a greater proportional increase in AUC occurred between oral doses of 2-100 mg/kg while in rats, the serum AUC increased in less than proportional manner from 10-200 mg/kg p.o. In all species, radioactive compounds were excreted mainly in the urine. No metabolites were detected in dog and human urine while small amounts of unconjugated metabolites were excreted in mouse and rat urine.

Pharmacokinetics and disposition of the lipid-lowering drug acifran in normal subjects and in patients with renal failure.

The pharmacokinetics and metabolic fate of the antihyperlipidemic drug acifran were assessed after a single oral dose of the 14C-labeled drug to healthy male volunteers. Peak serum acifran and radioactivity concentrations were attained 1 to 2 hours after dosing, and the drug was eliminated with a half-life of 1.6 hours. Virtually all of the recovered dose was excreted in the urine. All of the serum and urinary radioactivity was caused by unconjugated acifran. In patients with moderate chronic renal failure, the binding of acifran to plasma proteins was decreased, and the plasma concentrations of total and unbound drug were greater than those of healthy subjects. Renal failure substantially reduced the plasma and renal clearance of total and particularly of unbound acifran, moderately reduced its volume of distribution, and increased its elimination half-life from 1.4 to 1.7 hours to 5.7 hours. The results show that acifran is very well absorbed, is rapidly eliminated, is excreted in the urine, and does not undergo any detectable biotransformation in healthy human subjects.

Disposition of a new tetrahydrocarbazole analgesic drug in laboratory animals and man.

1. The disposition of AY-30,068 (I), a new tetrahydrocarbazole analgesic drug, was studied in mice, rats, dogs, rhesus monkeys, and man. 2. Oral doses of the 14C-labelled drug in aqueous solution were well absorbed in rodents, but absorption of oral doses of the crystalline drug in dogs was poor. Due to the virtual absence of serum metabolites in rats and dogs, the bioavailability of I was nearly identical to the extent of absorption. Although a small first-pass effect was observed in mice, unchanged I represented a major portion of serum radioactivity. 3. A linear increase in the serum concentrations of I occurred at doses between 0.05 and 25 mg/kg in rats, 0.1 and 50 mg/kg in dogs, and 1-160 mg in man. In rhesus monkeys given a 0.5 mg/kg oral dose, the Cmax and AUC of I were similar to values obtained following a corresponding dose in dogs. 4. After i.v. administration of a 1.0 mg/kg dose the terminal elimination half-life (t1/2 beta) of I was 4 h in mice and 9-10 h in rats and dogs. In rodents, dogs, and several human subjects, the elimination of I was interrupted by secondary peaks. Enterohepatic circulation was confirmed in bile duct cannulated rats, where the t1/2 beta of I was decreased to 2.4 h. In rodents the serum clearance and apparent volume of distribution of I were 0.04-0.2 l/kg.h and 0.5-0.8 l/kg, respectively, and 0.6 l/kg.h and 9.8 l/kg in dogs. 5. In rodents and dogs dosed with 14C-labelled I, radioactivity was excreted almost entirely in the faeces. No unchanged I was detected in rat bile, while about 70% of the radioactivity corresponded to conjugates of parent drug.

Pharmacokinetics of cetamolol in hypertensive patients with normal and compromised renal function.

The efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetic parameters of a 30-mg oral dose of cetamolol hydrochloride (Betacor), a new synthetic cardioselective beta-adrenoceptor antagonist, with intrinsic sympathomimetic activity, were evaluated by studying 32 hypertensive patients with normal renal function or different degrees of renal impairment. After administration of cetamolol, serial blood and urine sample collections, as well as vital sign determinations for the next 48 hours, were performed in all patients (with the exception of urine collection, which was not possible in hemodialysis patients). Results indicate that cetamolol's pharmacokinetic parameters are significantly changed in patients who have moderate or severe renal impairment. Specifically, as the severity of renal impairment increased, the maximum serum concentration (Cmax) and the area under the serum concentration-time curve (AUC) increased, whereas the renal clearance (CLR), urinary excretion, and total body clearance (CL) decreased. Additionally, significant direct or inverse correlations for AUC, CL, CLR, and urinary excretion with creatinine clearance (CLCR) were demonstrated. In the subjects with mild renal impairment, the trends toward changes in the cetamolol pharmacokinetic parameters were evident, though small and not statistically significant. Although anuric, patients on hemodialysis still retained the ability metabolically to clear cetamolol at a rate of about one-third of that found in normal subjects. Reductions in blood pressure and heart rate also were found to be greater and more prolonged as the severity of renal impairment increased. There were no adverse drug or toxic effects noted in any of the study patients. Based on these findings, dosing recommendations are suggested for patients who have compromised renal function because of the effects of renal function on the pharmacokinetics of cetamolol.

The pharmacokinetics of etodolac in serum and synovial fluid of patients with arthritis.

The pharmacokinetics of etodolac have been evaluated in five patients with arthritis given 200 mg etodolac, twice daily, at 12-hour intervals, for 7 days. Albumin and total protein concentrations were markedly lower in synovial fluid than in serum, and etodolac free fraction was significantly higher. Etodolac readily penetrated into the synovial fluid, and in the postdistributive phase the concentration of free etodolac (i.e., the drug responsible for pharmacologic activity) remained higher than that in serum at all times. No differences in the half-life of etodolac elimination were noted.

Comparative pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of conventional and long-acting propranolol.

This investigation was conducted to compare the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of single and multiple doses of conventional propranolol and long-acting propranolol in healthy human volunteers. Two double-blind, randomized, double-crossover, Latin square studies were carried out. One study evaluated long-acting propranolol 160 mg/d, conventional propranolol 40 mg qid, or placebo for seven days in 24 men. The other study compared long-acting propranolol 80 mg/d, conventional propranolol 20 mg qid, or placebo for seven days in 27 men. At specific times after the administration, blood samples were obtained, and heart rate and blood pressure were measured; exercise tests were done both on the first day and at steady state (day 7). In both studies, the area under the plasma propranolol concentration-time curve and the peak concentration were significantly less (P less than .0001) after the administration of long-acting propranolol compared with conventional propranolol on both day 1 and day 7; in addition, the elimination half-life was longer after administration of the long-acting preparation (9 hr) compared with that following the conventional dosage form (4 hr). Both conventional and long-acting propranolol significantly decreased the exercise heart rate at each of the selected time points (P less than .05) compared with placebo. Reduction in exercise heart rate was greater with conventional propranolol than with the long-acting formulation, but the differences were not statistically significant, when exercise was performed only at trough levels of the conventional drug. The decreases in exercise heart rate were correlated with plasma propranolol concentrations.

Etodolac kinetics in the elderly.

The effects of age and chronic dosing on the pharmacokinetics of the anti-inflammatory drug etodolac were evaluated in healthy young subjects, healthy elderly subjects, and elderly patients with osteoarthritis. After either single or chronic (7 days) dosing, both the healthy elderly subjects and the elderly patients with osteoarthritis had values for etodolac peak concentration, time to reach peak concentration, the AUC from 0 to 24 hours, elimination t1/2, and free fraction that did not differ significantly from those in the young (control) subjects. Despite the expected increases in the peak concentration and AUC from 0 to 24 hours for all groups after chronic dosing, there were no changes in etodolac free fraction, time to peak concentration, or t1/2. Because significant accumulation of etodolac was not observed in our elderly participants, adjustment of dosage when elderly subjects receive etodolac therapy is not indicated.

The metabolic disposition of acifran, a new antihyperlipidemic agent, in rats and dogs.

The metabolic disposition of the antihyperlipidemic agent acifran (AY-25, 712) was determined in rats and dogs. The synthesis of 14C-labelled acifran is described. Serum levels of 14C and acifran were measured in rats and dogs after p.o. and i.v. administration of 14C-acifran at a dose of 10 mg/kg. Over 80% of the 14C in serum was due to acifran. The drug was rapidly absorbed and the pharmacokinetics, unaffected by increasing the dose or by daily multiple doses, were characterized by a two-compartment open model. Food reduced the bioavailability of acifran by 27% in the dog. About 65% of the dose was absorbed in rats, and at least 88% in dogs. The elimination t 1/2 of acifran from serum was 1.5 h in the rat and 3 h in the dog. Acifran was partially bound to serum proteins, man greater than rat greater than dog; the drug was found to displace protein-bound warfarin in rat and dog, but not in human serum. Radioactivity did not tend to accumulate in tissues, except for the kidney, where the 14C concentration was five times higher than in the serum; elimination of 14C from all the tissues was similar to that from serum. Most of the absorbed dose was excreted in the urine. Acifran did not undergo enterohepatic circulation in the rat. Virtually all the urinary 14C in both species was due to the unchanged compound. In conclusion, the disposition of acifran was similar in rats and dogs. The drug was rapidly absorbed and eliminated, and underwent no detectable biotransformation. There was no tissue retention and excretion was mainly in the urine.

Metabolic disposition and pharmacokinetics of the aldose reductase inhibitor tolrestat in rats, dogs, and monkeys.

The metabolic disposition and pharmacokinetics of the aldose reductase inhibitor tolrestat were studied in rats, dogs, and assamese and capuchin monkeys. In addition, the ocular penetration of tolrestat was examined in rabbits. The bioavailability of tolrestat was 81% in rats and 68% in dogs. In contrast to rats, a major proportion of the serum 14C in dogs and monkeys was due to unchanged drug. The terminal elimination half-life of tolrestat in serum was 3.5 hr in rats, 11 hr in dogs, and 9 hr in monkeys; in both dogs and monkeys, the total body clearance was 200 ml/kg X hr, and the volume of distribution was 3 liters/kg. In rats and dogs, serum tolrestat concentrations were similar after single and multiple po doses, and were linearly dose-related up to 25 mg/kg, but increased disproportionately at higher doses. Tolrestat was at least 98% bound to rat and dog serum proteins. Except for organs associated with absorption and elimination, tissue 14C levels were lower than in serum of rats and capuchin monkeys, and there was no tissue 14C accumulation. The 14C from topically applied 14C-tolrestat readily penetrated into the eyes of rabbits. Liver microsomal cytochrome P-450 was virtually unaltered in tolrestat-treated rats. Tolrestat (and/or its metabolites) underwent enterohepatic circulation in rats. Most of the 14C from 14C-tolrestat administered po and iv to rats and dogs was excreted in the feces. Based on 14C excretion, the absorption of tolrestat was 84% in rats and 82% in dogs.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Tolrestat kinetics.

The kinetics of tolrestat, a potent inhibitor of aldose reductase, were examined. Serum concentrations of tolrestat and of total 14C were measured after dosing normal subjects and subjects with diabetes with 14C-labeled tolrestat. In normal subjects, tolrestat was rapidly absorbed and disappearance from serum was biphasic. Distribution and elimination t 1/2s were approximately 2 and 10 to 12 hr, respectively, after single and multiple doses. Unchanged tolrestat accounted for the major portion of 14C in serum. Radioactivity was rapidly and completely excreted in urine and feces in an approximate ratio of 2:1. Findings were much the same in subjects with diabetes. In normal subjects, the kinetics of oral tolrestat were independent of dose in the 10 to 800 mg range. Repetitive dosing did not result in unexpected cumulation. Tolrestat was more than 99% bound to serum protein; it did not compete with warfarin for binding sites but was displaced to some extent by high concentrations of tolbutamide or salicylate.

Bioavailability studies with etodolac in dogs and man.

The effects of formulation, particle size, coadministration of food, antacids, or antiulcer agents on the bioavailability of etodolac (ULTRADOL, 1,8-diethyl-1,3,4,9-tetrahydropyrano[3,4-b]indole-1-acetic acid), a novel non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent, have been evaluated in dogs and man. The effects of dosage regimen and/or repetitive dosing on bioavailability were also determined. In man, capsule and tablet dosage forms containing micronized etodolac were shown to have a bioavailability (AUC) equal to that of the reference etodolac solution. Etodolac from tablets and capsules was rapidly absorbed since only minor decreases in Cmax and increases in tmax were observed compared to the etodolac solution. In a comparison of regular and micronized etodolac dosage forms, both in dogs and man, similar findings, i.e. no change in AUC but small parallel changes in Cmax and tmax, were noted. Administration of etodolac with food had no effect on etodolac bioavailability in dogs but tended to cause a delay in its absorption. Coadministration of an antacid, magaldrate, or the antiulcer agent, sucralfate, had no effect on the bioavailability of etodolac in dogs, although with the latter, a significant reduction in Cmax was noted. In man, etodolac may be administered as a single bolus dose or in divided (b.i.d.) doses without any loss in bioavailability. With either regimen, on repeat administration for 7 days, no etodolac accumulation was noted.