The temporal burden of preparing catheters for re-use in adults with spinal cord injury: a cross-sectional study.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional OBJECTIVES: Neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction is common among people with spinal cord injury (SCI). Although single-use clean intermittent catheterization is recommended to facilitate routine bladder emptying, catheter re-use is common. Barriers associated with the preparation (i.e., cleaning) of catheters for re-use are unknown. This study examined barriers to catheter re-use in adult individuals with SCI by assessing (1) the time needed to clean a catheter, and (2) the perceived difficulty of the catheter cleaning routine. SETTING: Laboratory METHODS: Twenty individuals with chronic SCI ( ≥ 1 year since injury; Group 1 = 10 with tetraplegia; Group 2 = 10 with paraplegia) completed the study. Using a standardized cleaning procedure (i.e., Milton method), catheter cleaning was timed for each participant. Perceived difficulty was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. Functional impairment was assessed with the Upper Extremity Motor Score (UEMS). RESULTS: Significant between-group differences were observed for total cleaning time (Group 1 = 1584.1 ± 179.8 s; Group 2 = 1321.0 ± 93.8 s, p = 0.004) and perceived difficulty [Group 1 = 2.6 (2, 3); Group 2 = 2 (1.7, 2.3), p = 0.028]. Total cleaning time was significantly correlated with UEMS (ρ = -0.709, p ≤ 0.001) and perceived difficulty (ρ = 0.468, p = 0.037). UEMS emerged as an independent predictor of total cleaning time (R2 = 0.745, ß = -0.833, p ≤ 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Preparing catheters for re-use is time-intensive and difficult for people with higher SCI level, severity and more pronounced upper limb motor impairment, which was independently associated with total cleaning time. Performing this routine on a consistent basis would require a substantial time commitment and would have a profoundly negative impact on overall quality of life.

UTI assessment tool for intermittent catheter users: a way to include user perspectives and enhance quality of UTI management.

BACKGROUND: Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) are among the most severe complications for users of intermittent catheterisation (IC), with numerous risk factors contributing to their occurrence. The aim of this study was to develop a tool to assess UTI risk factors among IC users in a systematic way that considers the perspective of the individual user. METHODS: The Design Thinking Process was used to guide the development of the content and format of the tool. The UTI Risk Factors model by Kennelly et al. was used as a basis for developing the content. Insights on the appropriate content and format were collected via the Coloplast Nurse Advisory Boards and by conducting a qualitative evidence synthesis on user perspectives and practices in relation to UTIs. RESULTS: The literature search identified a total of 3544 articles, out of which 22 met the inclusion criteria. Additionally, three rounds of meetings were conducted with approximately 90 nurses from the Nurse Advisory Boards across Europe. The qualitative evidence synthesis showed that users describe their UTI symptoms in different terms and that personal needs and priorities impact their adherence and catheter selection. Furthermore, some users lack relevant and updated knowledge about IC and UTIs. The nurses described that correct UTI diagnosis is essential. They pointed that they would assess the user's general condition, adherence, technique, and catheter type as potential areas of risk factors and emphasised the importance of adequate support for users. The study resulted in the development of the UTI assessment tool for intermittent catheter users, which comprises three elements: a guide for healthcare professionals, a dialogue board, and a notepad. The tool starts with a confirmation of the UTI incidence, and then assesses risk factors via questions on health, adherence, technique, and catheter, and concludes with a support section. CONCLUSIONS: The UTI assessment tool for intermittent catheter users is designed to help healthcare professionals assess UTI risk factors in a systematic way, while engaging users and taking their perspective into account. By identifying the relevant risk factors, the use of this tool has the potential to reduce the occurrence of UTIs for the individual IC user.

Reduced colonic smooth muscle cholinergic responsiveness is associated with impaired bowel motility after chronic experimental high-level spinal cord injury.

The mechanisms underlying bowel dysfunction after high-level spinal cord injury (SCI) are poorly understood. However, impaired supraspinal sympathetic and parasympathetic control is likely a major contributing factor. Disruption of the descending autonomic pathways traversing the spinal cord was achieved by a T3 complete spinal cord transection, and colonic function was examined in vivo and ex vivo four weeks post-injury. Total gastrointestinal transit time (TGTT) was reduced and contractility of the proximal and distal colon was impaired due to reduced M3 receptor sensitivity. These data describe a clinically relevant model of bowel dysfunction after SCI.

Cell transplantation and clinical reality: Kuwait experience in persons with spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective observational. OBJECTIVES: To compare objective (neurological examination) and subjective (patients perception) recovery in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) who chose to undergo cell transplantation therapies (CTT) outside of clinical trials abroad. SETTING: Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Hospital, Kuwait. METHODS: Nine patients with SCI who had undergone CTT outside Kuwait were identified and their neurological pre-transplantation evaluation according the International Standards for Neurological Classification of SCI (ISNCSCI) was collected from hospital records. Post transplantation ISNCSCI examination was conducted during follow-up visits and scores were completed between pre and post CTT. In addition to the ISNCSCI evaluation, change in disability status, and patient's perception of improvement after stem cell transplantation were examined. RESULTS: Overall, 8 males and 1 female with chronic SCI underwent CTT (42 ± 38.2 months post SCI) in various centers (China, Egypt, Germany, India, and Iran). On follow-up post CTT assessment (89.2 ± 36 months post SCI), 55.5% of individuals reported perceived improvement as follows: increased deep tissue sensation below the injury (100%) or increase in bladder sensation (11.1%). Objective examination after CTT revealed that none of the examined individuals demonstrated improvement in their motor scores or neurological level of SCI. CONCLUSION: We were not able to objectively document clinically useful improvements in sensorimotor, autonomic, or functional status in individuals after CTT.

Autonomic testing for prediction of competition performance in Paralympic athletes.

While we now appreciate that autonomic dysfunction can impact wheelchair rugby performance, this is currently not being assessed during classification, largely due to lack of a standardized and evidence-based strategy to assess autonomic function. Our aim, therefore, was to establish the optimal autonomic testing protocol that best predicts cardiovascular capacity during competition by comprehensively examining autonomic function in elite wheelchair rugby athletes with cervical SCI and thereby enhance the standardized classification. Twenty-six individuals with cervical SCI (C4-C8; AIS A, B, C) participated in this study during the 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto, Canada. Clinic autonomic testing included: sympathetic skin responses, baseline hemodynamics, orthostatic challenge test, and cold-pressor tests. Further, we completed standard motor/sensory assessments and obtained each participants' International Wheelchair Rugby Federation classification. These clinic metrics were correlated to in-competition heart rate monitoring obtained during competition. The current study provides novel evidence that the change in systolic blood pressure during an orthostatic challenge test predicts approximately 50% of the in-competition peak heart rate (P<.001). Conversely, International Wheelchair Rugby Federation classification was poorly associated with in-competition peak heart rate (R2 =.204; P<.05). Autonomic testing provides deep insight regarding preserved autonomic control after SCI that is associated with performance in elite wheelchair rugby athletes. As such, incorporating assessments of cardiovascular capacity in classification will help to ensure a level playing field and may obviate the need for practices such as boosting to gain an advantage due to poor cardiovascular control.

Correction to: Electrocardiogram-based predictors for arrhythmia after spinal cord injury.

There is a typographical error in the formula presented for QTVI. While the formula was correctly applied to the data presented, the description of the formula has an incorrectly placed parenthesis. It should read.

Version 1.1 of the international spinal cord injury skin and thermoregulation function basic data set.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the changes made to the international spinal cord injury (SCI) skin and thermoregulation function basic data set in version 1.1. SETTING: International. METHODS: An international working group reviewed suggested changes to the international SCI skin and thermoregulation function basic data set version 1.0. These changes were discussed and the agreed changes were made. Subsequently, the recommended adjustments were circulated for review to the International Spinal Cord Society (ISCoS) Executive and Scientific Committees, the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Board, around 40 national and international societies, and to interested individuals who had signed up wishing to have the opportunity to review. In addition, the suggested changes were displayed at the ISCoS and ASIA websites for at least a month for possible comments. RESULTS: The recommendation 'largest diameter, including undermining' is changed to: 'Largest undermining', and a description of how to measure this is inserted. The 'smallest opening diameter' is changed to: 'Width' as the maximum dimension perpendicular to the length axis. In the literature, there is a tendency to replace 'grades' or 'stages' with 'categories'; therefore, the word 'category' is used instead of 'grade' or 'stage'. CONCLUSIONS: Impracticable measurements have been adjusted and new terminology adopted. All are to be found on ISCoS website: http://www.iscos.org.uk/international-sci-skin-and-thermoregulation-function-data-sets.

An evaluation of the International Standards to Document Remaining Autonomic Function after Spinal Cord Injury: input from the international community.

STUDY DESIGN: Interactive workshops with a presurvey-postsurvey. OBJECTIVES: To describe a series of workshops held at international meetings to inform the spinal cord injury (SCI) community about the International Standards to Document Remaining Autonomic Function after Spinal Cord Injury (ISAFSCI) and to obtain feedback on both the workshop and the ISAFSCI assessment. SETTING: Three international conferences of SCI practitioners in Toronto, Las Vegas and Vancouver held between 2012 and 2013. METHODS: The workshops included an overview of the ISAFSCI, sharing experiences using it in clinical practice and interactive cases illustrating how to complete the scoring. A presurvey-postsurvey was administered to obtain feedback on the workshops and the ISAFSCI assessment. RESULTS: One hundred and fourteen participants completed the workshop surveys and 96% (109/114) completed both presurvey and postsurvey. Prior to the workshop, 41% (47/114) of those who had completed the survey reported assessing autonomic function in their practice, and of those, 53% (25/47) reported using the ISAFSCI. After the workshop, 74% (84/114) of participants reported that the case studies were helpful, and 57% (65/114) reported that they wanted to start or continue to use the ISAFSCI in their clinical practice. Suggestions for improving the ISAFSCI included providing further areas to consider when performing the assessment, addressing ambiguity of terms and reporting foreseeable implementation challenges. CONCLUSION: Results from this workshop suggest that more work is needed to inform the SCI community on the ISAFSCI assessment and to further clarify its language. Results from this study will inform future revisions to the ISAFSCI.

Online training improves paramedics' knowledge of autonomic dysreflexia management guidelines.

STUDY DESIGN: Single-group pre-/post-test with 3- and 6-month follow-ups. OBJECTIVES: To test the effects of the 'ABCs of AD' educational module on immediate and longer-term changes in paramedics' knowledge and beliefs about using the autonomic dysreflexia clinical practice guidelines (AD-CPGs). SETTING: Canada. METHODS: A total of 119 paramedics completed an AD knowledge test and measures of attitudes, perceived control, self-efficacy, social pressure from patients and health-care professionals, and intentions to use the AD-CPGs before and 1 week, 3 months and 6 months after viewing 'ABCs of AD'. RESULTS: There were significant improvements in AD knowledge, attitudes and social pressure from patients to use the AD-CPGs from baseline to 1 week, 3 months and 6 months post viewing (all P<0.001). Self-efficacy and intentions increased 1 week post viewing (P<0.001), but returned to baseline levels at 3 and 6 months (P>0.05). There was no change in perceived control or social pressure from health-care professionals. AD knowledge and beliefs explained 50-61% of the variance in intentions to use the AD-CPGs. Attitudes, social pressure from patients and perceived behavioural control were significant unique predictors of intentions at all time points (P<0.05); AD knowledge was a significant predictor at 6 months only (P=0.048). No other predictors were significant. CONCLUSION: 'ABCs of AD' has immediate and sustained effects on paramedics' knowledge of attitudes toward and perceived pressure from patients to use the AD-CPGs. Updates to paramedic patient care guidelines and standards are needed to increase paramedics' perceived control and self-efficacy to implement the guidelines, and their intentions to use the AD-CPGs. SPONSORSHIP: Canadian Institutes of Health Research (2011-CIHR- 260877).

Movement repetitions in physical and occupational therapy during spinal cord injury rehabilitation.

STUDY DESIGN: Longitudinal observational study. OBJECTIVE: To quantify the amount of upper- and lower-extremity movement repetitions (that is, voluntary movements as part of a functional task or specific motion) occurring during inpatient spinal cord injury (SCI), physical (PT) and occupational therapy (OT), and examine changes over the inpatient rehabilitation stay. SETTING: Two stand-alone inpatient SCI rehabilitation centers. METHODS: Participants: A total of 103 patients were recruited through consecutive admissions to SCI rehabilitation. INTERVENTIONS: Trained assistants observed therapy sessions and obtained clinical outcome measures in the second week following admission and in the second to last week before discharge. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: PT and OT time, upper- and lower-extremity repetitions and changes in these outcomes over the course of rehabilitation stay. RESULTS: We observed 561 PT and 347 OT sessions. Therapeutic time comprised two-thirds of total therapy time. Summed over PT and OT, the median upper-extremity repetitions in patients with paraplegia were 7 repetitions and in patients with tetraplegia, 42 repetitions. Lower-extremity repetitions and steps primarily occurred in ambulatory patients and amounted to 218 and 115, respectively (summed over PT and OT sessions at discharge). Wilcoxon-signed rank tests revealed that most repetition variables did not change significantly over the inpatient rehabilitation stay. In contrast, clinical outcomes for the arm and leg improved over this time period. CONCLUSIONS: Repetitions of upper- and lower-extremity movements are markedly low during PT and OT sessions. Despite improvements in clinical outcomes, there was no significant increase in movement repetitions over the course of inpatient rehabilitation stay.

Cardiovascular response during urodynamics in individuals with spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. OBJECTIVES: To establish the frequency and severity of autonomic dysreflexia (AD) during urodynamics among individuals with chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) and to investigate the possible effect of the number of years since SCI on the severity of AD. SETTING: SCI outpatient clinic. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was undertaken of individuals with SCI who were seen at an outpatient clinic and could potentially develop an episode of AD (T6 and above). Data regarding age, gender, urodynamic examination, lower urinary tract function, cardiovascular parameters and SCI were collected. In addition, information on signs and symptoms of AD were retrieved. RESULTS: A total of 76 individuals with SCI were examined with blood pressure (BP) monitoring. The majority had cervical SCI (79%). The mean age was 47.8±13.9 years. The median duration after SCI was 51.5 months. During urodynamics, a total of 48 (63.2%) individuals showed an increase in systolic BP>20 mm Hg, meeting the criteria for AD. Indicators for higher incidences of AD were cervical SCI, being >2 years after SCI, the presence of detrusor sphincter dyssynergia (DSD) and low bladder compliance. AD was more severe in individuals with complete (American Spinal Cord Association (ASIA) impairment scale (AIS) A) injuries, worse with greater time after SCI. CONCLUSION: Individuals with cervical SCI, DSD, poor bladder compliance or >2 years after SCI were associated with a higher possibility of developing AD during urodynamics. Furthermore, AD was more severe in complete (AIS A) individuals and was exacerbated with time after injury.

Rigid and remodelled: cerebrovascular structure and function after experimental high-thoracic spinal cord transection.

High-thoracic or cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) is associated with several critical clinical conditions related to impaired cerebrovascular health, including: 300-400% increased risk of stroke, cognitive decline and diminished cerebral blood flow regulation. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of high-thoracic (T3 spinal segment) SCI on cerebrovascular structure and function, as well as molecular markers of profibrosis. Seven weeks after complete T3 spinal cord transection (T3-SCI, n = 15) or sham injury (Sham, n = 10), rats were sacrificed for either middle cerebral artery (MCA) structure and function assessments via ex vivo pressure myography, or immunohistochemical analyses. Myogenic tone was unchanged, but over a range of transmural pressures, inward remodelling occurred after T3-SCI with a 40% reduction in distensibility (both P < 0.05), and a 33% reduction in vasoconstrictive reactivity to 5-HT trending toward significance (P = 0.09). After T3-SCI, the MCA had more collagen I (42%), collagen III (24%), transforming growth factor ß (47%) and angiotensin II receptor type 2 (132%), 27% less elastin as well as concurrent increased wall thickness and reduced lumen diameter (all P < 0.05). Sympathetic innervation (tyrosine hydroxylase-positive axon density) and endothelium-dependent dilatation (carbachol) of the MCA were not different between groups. This study demonstrates profibrosis and hypertrophic inward remodelling within the largest cerebral artery after high-thoracic SCI, leading to increased stiffness and possibly impaired reactivity. These deleterious adaptations would substantially undermine the capacity for regulation of cerebral blood flow and probably underlie several cerebrovascular clinical conditions in the SCI population.

A cost-effectiveness analysis of long-term intermittent catheterisation with hydrophilic and uncoated catheters.

STUDY DESIGN: Cost-effectiveness analysisObjective:To establish a model to investigate the cost effectiveness for people with spinal cord injury (SCI), from a lifetime perspective, for the usage of two different single-use catheter designs: hydrophilic-coated (HC) and uncoated (UC). The model includes the long-term sequelae of impaired renal function and urinary tract infection (UTI). SETTING: Analysis based on a UK perspective. METHODS: A probabilistic Markov decision model was constructed, to compare lifetime costs and quality-adjusted life years, taking renal and UTI health states into consideration, as well as other catheter-related events. UTI event rates for the primary data set were based on data from hospital settings to ensure controlled and accurate reporting. A sensitivity analysis was applied to evaluate best- and worst-case scenarios. RESULTS: The model predicts that a 36-year-old SCI patient with chronic urinary retention will live an additional 1.4 years if using HC catheters compared with UC catheters, at an incremental cost of £2100. Moreover, the lifetime number of UTI events will be reduced by 16%. All best- and worst-case estimates were within the UK threshold of being cost effective. CONCLUSION: The use of HC catheters for intermittent catheterisation in SCI patients is highly cost effective. The outcome is consistent irrespective of whether UTI data are collected in hospital or community settings.

Assessment of clinical adherence to the international autonomic standards following spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart analysis. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the use of the International Autonomic Standards (IAS, 2009 edition) for classification of remaining autonomic function following spinal cord injury (SCI) over a 1-year period in a rehabilitation center, to determine clinical adherence to use of the IAS, and to examine the most common autonomic dysfunctions, as determined by using the IAS. SETTING: Tertiary rehabilitation hospital. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted on the use of the IAS at admission and discharge over a 1-year period on patients admitted to an in-patient SCI unit in a tertiary rehabilitation center. We examined the consistency of the form completion, as well as the completion of separate components of the forms. Finally, we examined the prevalence of each autonomic impairment. RESULTS: A total of 70 patients were admitted to the unit. The clinical adherence to the IAS was lower than the International Standards for Neurological Classification of SCI (ISNCSCI) at both admission (63% and 93%, respectively) and discharge (39% and 78%, respectively). Blood pressure dysfunction was most common among the general autonomic function disorders. However, urinary, bowel and sexual dysfunctions were present in almost all individuals with acute SCI. CONCLUSION: The IAS is in the initial stages of being incorporated into routine admission and discharge clinical examinations of individuals with SCI. The current results suggest that the clinical adherence to the IAS is low; however, it is expected that increased education, experience, and accumulating evidence for the IAS will improve its use.

Iatrogenic urological triggers of autonomic dysreflexia: a systematic review.

STUDY DESIGN: This is a systematic review. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to review the literature on iatrogenic urological triggers of autonomic dysreflexia (AD). SETTING: This study was conducted in an international setting. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted from PubMed search using AD/ autonomic hyperreflexia and spinal cord injury (SCI). Studies selected for review involved iatrogenic urological triggers of AD in individuals with SCI, including original articles, previous practice guidelines, case reports and literature reviews. Studies that did not report AD or blood pressure (BP) assessments during urological procedures were excluded. RESULTS: Forty studies were included for analysis and categorized into four groups: (1) urodynamics and cystometry; (2) cystoscopy and transurethral litholapaxy; (3) extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy (ESWL); and (4) other procedures. During urodynamics, the incidence of AD ranged from 36.7% to 77.8%. The symptomatic rate ranged from 50% to 65%, with AD symptoms seen predominantly in cervical SCI patients. The studies imply no consensus regarding the relationship between AD, neurogenic detrusor overactivity and detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. Without anesthesia, the majority of individuals develop AD during cystoscopy, transurethral litholapaxy and ESWL. The effectiveness of different anesthesia methods relies on blocking the nociceptive signals from the lower urinary tract (LUT) below the level of the neurological lesion. Other iatrogenic urological triggers were commonly associated with bladder filling. CONCLUSION: The LUT triggers of episodes of AD are often associated with iatrogenic urological procedures. AD was more prevalent in cervical SCI than in thoracic SCI. To detect this potential life-threatening complication following cervical and high thoracic SCI, routine BP monitoring during urological procedures is highly recommended.

Cardiovascular control, autonomic function, and elite endurance performance in spinal cord injury.

We aimed to determine the relationship between level of injury, completeness of injury, resting as well as exercise hemodynamics, and endurance performance in athletes with spinal cord injury (SCI). Twenty-three elite male paracycling athletes (C3-T8) were assessed for neurological level/completeness of injury, autonomic completeness of injury, resting cardiovascular function, and time to complete a 17.3-km World Championship time-trial test. A subset were also fitted with heart rate (HR) monitors and their cycles were fitted with a global positioning systems device (n = 15). Thoracic SCI exhibited higher seated systolic blood pressure along with superior time-trial performance compared with cervical SCI (all P < 0.01). When further stratified by autonomic completeness of injury, the four athletes with cervical autonomic incomplete SCI exhibited a faster time-trial time and a higher average speed compared with cervical autonomic complete SCI (all P < 0.042). Maximum and average HR also tended to be higher in cervical autonomic incomplete vs autonomic complete. There were no differences in time-trial time, HR, or speed between thoracic autonomic complete vs incomplete SCI. In conclusion, autonomic completeness of injury and the consequent ability of the cardiovascular system to respond to exercise appear to be a critical determinant of endurance performance in elite athletes with cervical SCI.

Assessment of autonomic function after acute spinal cord injury using heart rate variability analyses.

OBJECTIVES: Spinal cord injury (SCI) often results in severe dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system. C1-C8 SCI affects the supraspinal control to the heart, T1-T5 SCI affects the spinal sympathetic outflow to the heart, and T6-T12 SCI leaves sympathetic control to the heart intact. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis can serve as a surrogate measure of autonomic regulation. The aim of this study was to investigate changes in HRV patterns and alterations in patients with acute traumatic SCI. METHODS: As soon as possible after SCI patients who met the inclusion criteria had 24 h Holter monitoring of their cardiac rhythm, additional Holter monitoring were performed 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks after SCI. RESULTS: Fifty SCI patients were included. A significant increase in standard deviation of the average normal-to-normal (SDANN) sinus intervals was seen in the first month after injury (P=0.008). The increase was only significant in C1-T5 incomplete patients and in patients who did not experience one or more episodes of cardiac arrest. Significant lower values of Low Frequency Power, Total Power and the Low Frequency over High Frequency ratio were seen in the C1-T5 SCI patients compared with T6-T12 SCI patients. CONCLUSIONS: The rise in SDANN in the incomplete C1-T5 patients could be due to spontaneous functional recovery caused by synaptic plasticity or remodelling of damaged axons. That the autonomic nervous system function differs between C1-C8, T1-T5 and T6-T12 patients suggest that the sympathovagal balance in both the C1-C8 and T1-T5 SCI patients has yet to be reached.