ABSTRACT
Previous research has shown that pathological gamblers show various cognitive distortions, especially in interpreting near losses. Using a modified blackjack task, we investigated the electrophysiological responses to near and full losses in problem gamblers and controls. We assessed the event-related brain potentials (ERPs) of 20 problem gamblers and 21 controls at two time points following negative game outcomes. We also studied the behavioral changes after near and full loss experiences. Between 270 and 320 ms following a loss, controls but not gamblers showed a differential ERP response to near and full losses suggesting that a near loss is evaluated more negatively than a full loss. However, between 430 and 480 ms after a loss, the ERPs of both, gamblers and controls, showed a differential response as a function of the type of loss. Both groups became more cautious in their subsequent gambling behavior following near loss. The present study revealed differences in the time course of processing negative feedback in problem gamblers and normal controls, which might be due to gamblers preoccupation with gains rather than with losses.
Subject(s)
Brain/physiopathology , Evoked Potentials/physiology , Feedback, Psychological/physiology , Gambling/physiopathology , Reward , Adult , Brain Mapping , Decision Making/physiology , Female , Gambling/psychology , Humans , Male , Surveys and Questionnaires , Time FactorsABSTRACT
We assessed the influence of the variables outcome potential, feedback valence, magnitude, and probability on the amplitude of the feedback negativity (FN). Outcome potential was defined as the a priori valence of an upcoming feedback, that is, is there a potential win or potential loss? All these variables have been studied previously, although never together, but the findings have been contradictory. We analyzed the event-related potential (ERP) after feedback presentation in a reinforcement-learning task to examine the effects of all the variables on feedback negativity. Our results show that outcome potential, feedback valence, probability, and magnitude all influence feedback related ERPs. Taken together, the findings suggest that ERPs in the time range of the feedback negativity are primarily driven by positive outcomes (reinforcement) rather than negative outcomes (punishment).
Subject(s)
Choice Behavior/physiology , Event-Related Potentials, P300/physiology , Evoked Potentials/physiology , Feedback, Psychological/physiology , Probability , Reinforcement, Psychology , Adult , Female , Humans , Male , Punishment/psychology , RewardABSTRACT
Rational choice theory predicts that humans always optimize the expected utility of options when making decisions. However, in decision-making games, humans often punish their opponents even when doing so reduces their own reward. We used the Ultimatum and Dictator games to examine the affective correlates of decision-making. We show that the feedback negativity, an event-related brain potential that originates in the anterior cingulate cortex that has been related to reinforcement learning, predicts the decision to reject unfair offers in the Ultimatum game. Furthermore, the decision to reject is positively related to more negative emotional reactions and to increased autonomic nervous system activity. These findings support the idea that subjective emotional markers guide decision-making and that the anterior cingulate cortex integrates instances of reinforcement and punishment to provide such affective markers.
Subject(s)
Choice Behavior/physiology , Decision Making/physiology , Adult , Affect/physiology , Electroencephalography , Electrophysiological Phenomena , Female , Galvanic Skin Response/physiology , Game Theory , Humans , Individuality , Male , Reward , Young AdultABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Recent research has begun to examine the neurophysiologic basis of pathological gambling. However, direct evidence of a behavioral deficit and an accompanying neurofunctional deviation in a realistic gambling context such as Black Jack has not yet been reported. METHODS: Electroencephalogram was recorded while 20 problem gamblers and 21 control participants played a computerized version of Black Jack. Participants were asked to decide at point scores between 11 and 21 whether they wanted to take another card ("hit") to arrive closer to 21 than the opponent (simulated by computer) or not to take another card ("sit") to avoid going over 21 ("bust"). RESULTS: At a critical point score of 16, problem gamblers decided more often to hit despite losses due to a bust on the preceding trial, whereas control participants decided more often to sit under these conditions. Furthermore, problem gamblers showed more reward-related positive amplitudes in the event-related brain potential than control participants after successful hit decisions at 16. CONCLUSIONS: Here we provide experimental evidence for high-risk taking behavior in gamblers and its correlate in event-related brain potentials. Our results suggest that high-risk-taking behavior in problem gamblers is associated with an increased reward-related neural response to infrequent successes of this behavior.
Subject(s)
Gambling/psychology , Reward , Adult , Electroencephalography , Evoked Potentials/physiology , Executive Function/physiology , Humans , Male , Psychiatric Status Rating Scales , Reinforcement, Psychology , Young AdultABSTRACT
Recent research has focused on decision-making under risk and its neural bases. Two kinds of bad decisions under risk may be defined: too risky decisions and too cautious decisions. Here we show that suboptimal decisions of both kinds lead to increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex in a Blackjack gambling task. Moreover, this increased activity is related to the avoidance of the negatively evaluated decision under risk. These findings complement other results suggesting an important role of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex in reward-based decision-making and conflict resolution.
