High T m linear poly(l-lactide)s prepared via alcohol-initiated ROPs of l-lactide.

Alcohol-initiated ROPs of l-lactide were performed in bulk at 160 °C for 72 h with variation of the catalyst or with variation of the initiator (aliphatic alcohols). Spontaneous crystallization was only observed when cyclic Sn(ii) compounds were used as a catalyst. Regardless of initiator, high melting crystallites with melting temperatures (T m) of 189-193 °C were obtained in almost all experiments with Sn(ii) 2,2'-dioxybiphenyl (SnBiph) as catalyst, even when the time was shortened to 24 h. These HTm poly(lactide)s represent the thermodynamically most stable form of poly(l-lactide). Regardless of the reaction conditions, such high melting crystallites were never obtained when Sn(ii) 2-ethylhexanoate (SnOct2) was used as catalyst. SAXS measurements evidenced that formation of HTm poly(l-lactide) involves growth of the crystallite thickness, but chemical modification of the crystallite surface (smoothing) seems to be of greater importance. A hypothesis, why the "surface smoothing" is more effective for crystallites of linear chains than for crystallites composed of cycles is discussed.

About the transformation of low T m into high T m poly(l-lactide)s by annealing under the influence of transesterification catalysts.

Cyclic polylactides were prepared in bulk at 170 °C, crystallized at 120 °C and then annealed at temperatures between 130 and 170 °C with variation of catalyst, catalyst concentration and annealing time. The transformation of the initially formed low melting (LT m) crystallites, having melting temperatures (T m) < 180 °C into high melting (HT m) crystallites having T m values > 189 °C was monitored by means of DSC measurements and characterized in selected cases by SAXS measurements. It was confirmed that the formation of HT m crystallites involves a significant growth of the thickness of the lamellar crystallites along with smoothing of their surface. Annealing at 170 °C for 1 d or longer causes thermal degradation with lowering of the molecular weights, a gradual transition of cyclic into linear chains and a moderate decrease of lamellar thickness. An unexpected result revealed by MALDI TOF mass spectrometry is a partial reorganization of the molecular weight distribution driven by a gain of crystallization enthalpy.

The Ring-Opening Polymerization-Polycondensation (ROPPOC) Approach to Cyclic Polymers.

A new concept called ring-opening polymerization-polycondensation (ROPPOC) is presented and discussed. This synthetic strategy is based on the intermediate formation of chains having two end groups that can react with each other. The ROPPOC syntheses are subdivided into three groups according to the nature of the chain ends: two ionic end groups, one ionic and one covalent chain end, and a combination of two reactive covalent end groups may be involved, depending on the catalyst. The usefulness for the preparation of cyclic polymers is discussed with a review of numerous previously published examples. These examples concern the following classes of cyclic polymers: polypeptides, polyamides, and polyesters, including polycarbonates and cyclic polysiloxanes. It is demonstrated that the results of certain ROPPOC syntheses are in contradiction to the Jacobson-Stockmayer theory. Finally, the usefulness of ROPPOCs for the detection of polydisperse catenanes is discussed.

Non-stoichiometric polycondensations and the synthesis of high molar mass polycondensates.

This report presents a general overview of non-stoichiometric step-growth polymerizations (polycondensations). Three kinds of non-stoichiometric polycondensations are defined and discussed for a(2) + b(2) monomer combinations. Depending on the kinetic scenario and on the experimental conditions, the excess of one monomer either strongly reduces or strongly enhances the average degree of polymerization (DP) relative to a stoichiometric polycondensation under identical conditions. As a result, telechelic oligomers or extremely high molar mass polymers (DPs > 1000) may be formed. Stoichiometric imbalance has in all cases the consequence that cyclization is largely suppressed in early stages of a polycondensation. Finally, non- stoichiometric "a(2) + b(n) " polycondensations are discussed.

Cyclic and multicyclic polymers by three-dimensional polycondensation.

The recent confirmation that polycondensations (and other step-growth polymerizations) of difunctional monomers involve cyclization reactions at any concentration and at any stage of the polymerization also has consequences for three-dimensional polycondensations on multifunctional monomers. It is demonstrated that tree-shaped (hyperbranched) oligomers are gradually transformed into star-shaped polymers with a cyclic core, when the conversion increases. Polycondensations of "a(2) + b(3)" or "a(2) + b(4)" monomer combinations yield multicyclic polymers, when gelation can be avoided. This new architecture may be subdivided into three groups: perfect multicycles free of functional groups, multicycles having b functions, and multicycles having "a" groups. The concrete examples discussed in this Account mainly concern polyethers and polyesters.

Simultaneous chain-growth and step-growth polymerization-a new route to cyclic polymers.

Reinvestigation of numerous ring-opening polymerizations by means of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry has evidenced that cyclic polymers were formed as the only reaction products or, at least, in large fractions. This finding is ascribed to the intermediate formation of difunctional chains having active end groups that can react with each other. Due to the low concentration of these difunctional chains cyclization is favored over chain extension according to the Ruggli-Ziegler dilution principle. A polymerization mechanism which usually favors the formation of cyclic polymers is the zwitterionic polymerization, but an exception from this rule is known. The following classes of monomers were discussed: α-amino acid, N-carboxyanhydrides (oxazolidine-2,5-diones), dithiolane-2,4-diones, 5,5-dimethyl-1,3,2-dioxathiolan-4-one-2-oxide, salicylic acid O-carboxyanhydride, L-lactide and D,L-lactide, hexamethyl cyclotrisiloxane, and macrocyclic dithiocarbamates.

Synthesis of eight- and star-shaped poly(epsilon-caprolactone)s and their amphiphilic derivatives.

Spirocyclic tin dialkoxides are unique initiators for the ring-expansion polymerization of lactones leading to complex, but well-defined macromolecular architectures. In a first example, epsilon-caprolactone (epsilon CL) was polymerized, followed by the resumption of polymerization of a mixture of epsilon CL and epsilon CL alpha-substituted by a chloride (alpha Cl epsilon CL), so leading to "living" eight-shaped chains. Upon hydrolysis of the alkoxides, a four-arm star-shaped copolyester was formed, whose each arm was grafted by conversion of the chloride units into azides, followed by the Huisgen's [3+2] cycloaddition of alkyne end-capped poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) onto the azide substituents. The complexity of this novel amphiphilic architecture was increased further by substituting the four-arm interconnecting PCL by an eight-shaped PCL. In a preliminary step, epsilon CL was polymerized followed by a few units of epsilon CL alpha-substituted by an acrylate. The intramolecular photo-crosslinking of the acrylates adjacent to the tin dialkoxides was effective in stabilizing the eight-shaped polyester while preserving the chain growth sites. This quite unusual tetrafunctional macroinitiator was used to copolymerize epsilon CL and alpha Cl epsilon CL, followed by hydrolysis of the alkoxides, conversion of the chloride units into azides and grafting of the four arms by PEO (see above). This architecture reported for the very first time is nothing but a symmetrical four-tail eight-shaped copolyester macromolecule.

Polypeptides and 100 years of chemistry of alpha-amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides.

Syntheses and polymerizations of alpha-amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides (NCAs) were reported for the first time by Hermann Leuchs in 1906. Since that time, these cyclic and highly reactive amino acid derivatives were used for stepwise peptide syntheses but mainly for the formation of polypeptides by ring-opening polymerizations. This review summarizes the literature after 1985 and reports on new aspects of the polymerization processes, such as the formation of cyclic polypeptides or novel organometal catalysts. Polypeptides with various architectures, such as diblock, triblock, and multiblock sequences, and star-shaped or dendritic structures are also mentioned. Furthermore, lyotropic and thermotropic liquid-crystalline polypeptides will be discussed and the role of polypeptides as drugs or drug carriers are reviewed. Finally, the hypothetical role of NCAs in molecular evolution on the prebiotic Earth is discussed.

Synthesis of trimethoxy- or triethoxysilane-endcapped polylactones via a bismuth(III)hexanoate-catalyzed one-pot-procedure.

It was shown that bismuth(III)hexanoate (Bi(OHex)3) efficiently and selectively catalyzes the addition of tetra(ethylene glycol) (TEG) onto the isocyanate group of 3-isocyanatopropyl triethoxysilane, IPTES. delta-Valerolactone (deltaVL), epsilon-caprolactone (epsilonCL) and D,L-lactide were polymerized by initiation with TEG/Bi(OHex)3. The resulting telechelic polyesters were in situ functionalized with IPTES or with 3-isocyanatopropyl trimethoxysilane, IPTMS. Using pentaerythritol as co-initiator of Bi(OHex)3 and epsilonCL as monomer, star-shaped polylactones having triethylsilyl end-groups were synthesized in a one-pot-procedure. All functionalized polyesters were characterized by 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectroscopy and by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Bi(OHex)3 is a remarkable initiator and catalyst, because of its extraordinary low toxicity.

Copolymerizations of epsilon-caprolactone and glycolide-a comparison of tin(II)octanoate and bismuth(III)subsalicylate as initiators.

Copolymerizations of epsilon-caprolactone (epsilonCL) and glycolide (GL) were conducted in bulk at 120 degrees C with variation of the reaction time. Either Sn(II) 2-ethylhexanoate (SnOct(2)) or bismuth(III)subsalicylate (BiSS) were used as initiators combined with tetra(ethylene glycol) as co-initiator. The resulting copolyesters were analyzed by (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy with regard to the total molar composition and to the sequence of the comonomers. Furthermore, two series of copolymerizations (either Sn- or Bi-initiated) were performed at constant time with variation of the temperature. It was found that BiSS favors alternating sequences more than SnOct(2). Time-conversion curves and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry of homopolymerization suggest that SnOct(2) is the more efficient transesterification catalyst. A hypothetical reaction mechanism is discussed.

Multiblock copolymers of L-lactide and trimethylene carbonate.

Sequential copolymerizations of trimethylene carbonate (TMC) and l-lactide (LLA) were performed with 2,2-dibutyl-2-stanna-1,3-oxepane as a bifunctional cyclic initiator. The block lengths were varied via the monomer/initiator and via the TMC/l-lactide ratio. The cyclic triblock copolymers were transformed in situ into multiblock copolymers by ring-opening polycondensation with sebacoyl chloride. The chemical compositions of the block copolymers were determined from (1)H NMR spectra. The formation of multiblock structures and the absence of transesterification were proven by (13)C NMR spectroscopy. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) measurements confirmed the existence of a microphase-separated structure in the multiblock copolymers consisting of a crystalline phase of poly(LLA) blocks and an amorphous phase formed by the poly(TMC) blocks. Stress-strain measurements showed the elastomeric character of these biodegradable multiblock copolymers, particularly in copolymers having epsilon-caprolactone as comonomer in the poly(TMC) blocks.

Telechelic and star-shaped poly(L-lactide)s by means of bismuth(III) acetate as initiator.

L-lactide was polymerized as concentrated solution in chlorobenzene with Bi(OAc)3 as initiator. When tetra(ethylene glycol) was added as co-initiator (CoI), telechelic polylactides having two CH-OH end groups were obtained. With 1,1,1-tri(hydroxy methyl)propane (THMP) as co-initiator, three-armed stars having three CH-OH end groups were formed. Analogously, tetrafunctional star-shaped poly(L-lactide)s were obtained with pentaerythritol as co-initiator. The chain lengths were varied via the monomer/CoI ratio. Time-conversion curves proved that Bi(OAc)3 is slightly less reactive as initiator than tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate. However, bismuth acetate (or other carboxylates) have a particularly low toxicity as documented in the literature and by numerous Bi3+-containing pharmaceutical products.

Polylactones 57. Biodegradable networks based on A-B-A triblock segments containing poly(ethylene glycol)s-syntheses and drug release properties.

Condensation of Bu(2)Sn(OMe)(2) with poly(ethylene glycol)s yielded macrocyclic tin alkoxides which were, in turn, used as cyclic initiators for the ring-expansion polymerization of epsilon-caprolactone, D,L-lactide, or trimethylene carbonate. The resulting cyclic triblock copolymers were in situ cross-linked with trimesoyl chloride. The lengths of the A-B-A triblock segments were varied via the monomer-initiator ratio (M/I) or via the lengths of the poly(ethylene glycol)s. After extraction with CH(2)Cl(2), the isolated networks were characterized by (1)H NMR spectroscopy, DSC measurements, and swelling experiments. The release of dexamethasone and 5-fluorouracil from two triblock networks was studied in physiological buffer solutions at 37 degrees C over a period of several weeks. A strong initial burst was found in all cases. Only a weak initial burst and a more continuous release was observed when networks of random L-lactide/epsilon-caprolactone copolymers were studied under the same conditions.

Polylactones. 59. Biodegradable networks via ring-expansion polymerization of lactones and lactides with a spirocyclic tin initiator.

Spirocyclic tin initiators were prepared by condensation of commercial hydroxyethylated pentaerythritol with Bu(2)Sn(OMe)(2). These tin-containing spirocycles served as initiators for the ring-expansion polymerization of epsilon-caprolactone, beta-D,L-butyrolactone or D,L-lactide. The in situ polycondensation of these expanded spirocycles with terephthaloyl chloride or sebacoyl chloride yielded the desired biodegradable networks with elimination of the Bu(2)Sn group. The segment length (pore size) could be controlled via the monomer-initiator ratio (M/I) of the ring-expansion polymerization. Biodegradable networks were also obtained when Sn-containing spirocyclic polylactones were polycondensed with diphenyl dichlorosilane, benzene phosphonic dichloride, and phenyl phosphoric dichloride.