Expression of human factor VIII under control of the platelet-specific alphaIIb promoter in megakaryocytic cell line as well as storage together with VWF.

Hemophilia A, which results in defective or deficient factor VIII (FVIII) protein, is one of the genetic diseases that has been addressed through gene therapy trials. FVIII synthesis does not occur in normal megakaryocytes. In hemophilia patients who have inhibitors to FVIII activity, megakaryocytes could be a protected site of FVIII synthesis and subsequent release. Since von Willebrand factor (VWF) is a carrier protein for FVIII, we hypothesize that by directing FVIII synthesis to megakaryocytes, it would traffick together with VWF to storage in megakaryocyte alpha-granules and the platelets derived from these cells. Such synthesis would establish a protected, releasable alpha-granule pool of FVIII together with VWF. When platelets are activated in a region of local vascular damage, FVIII and VWF could potentially be released together to provide improved local hemostatic effectiveness. To direct FVIII expression to the megakaryocyte lineage, we designed a FVIII expression cassette where the human B-domain deleted FVIII cDNA was placed under the control of the megakaryocytic/platelet-specific glycoprotein IIb (alphaIIb) promoter. We demonstrated by means of a functional FVIII activity assay that the biosynthesis of FVIII occurred normally in Dami cells transfected with FVIII. FVIII production was higher when driven by the alphaIIb promoter compared to the CMV promoter, and was increased about 8-fold following PMA treatment of the transfected Dami cells. Immunofluorescence staining of the transfected cells showed that FVIII stored together with VWF in the granules. The data indicate that the megakaryocytic compartment of hematopoietic cells may represent a potential target of gene therapy for hemophilia A-especially in those patients who have developed inhibitors to plasma FVIII.

Intracellular trafficking of factor VIII to von Willebrand factor storage granules.

In plasma, von Willebrand factor (vWf) associates with Factor VIII (FVIII); however, the site at which these proteins first interact has not been defined. Administration of 1-desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin (DDAVP) causes a rapid, concomitant elevation in plasma levels of both vWf and FVIII, suggesting the existence of a DDAVP-releasable storage pool for both proteins. To determine whether vWf and FVIII can associate intracellularly and colocalize to storage vesicles, we transfected AtT-20 cells with vWf and FVIII expression plasmids. FVIII alone was not detectable within storage granules; however, transfection of vWf cDNA into the same cell caused FVIII to alter its intracellular trafficking and to undergo granular storage, colocalizing to the vWf-containing granules. In contrast, colocalization of FVIII was not observed when these cells were transfected with plasmids encoding defective FVIII-binding vWf mutants. Transfection of bovine endothelial cells with FVIII further demonstrated vesicular storage of FVIII with vWf in Weibel-Palade bodies. Since gene therapy of hemophilia A may ultimately target endothelium or hematopoietic stem cells, the interaction between vWf and FVIII within a secretory cell is important. Thus, vWf can alter the intracellular trafficking of FVIII from a constitutive to a regulated secretory pathway, thereby producing an intracellular storage pool of both proteins.

Type 2M:Milwaukee-1 von Willebrand disease: an in-frame deletion in the Cys509-Cys695 loop of the von Willebrand factor A1 domain causes deficient binding of von Willebrand factor to platelets.

This report examines the genetic basis of a variant form of moderately severe von Willebrand disease (vWD) characterized by low plasma von Willebrand factor antigen (vWF:Ag) levels and normal multimerization, typical of type 1 vWD, but disproportionately-low agonist-mediated platelet-binding activity. We identified an in-frame deletion in vWF exon 28 in three generations of affected family members, who are heterozygous for this mutation. The deletion of nucleotides 4,173-4,205 results in the loss of amino acids Arg629-Gln639 in the Cys509-Cys695 loop of the A1 domain in mature vWF. The secreted mutant vWF showed a normal multimeric profile but did not bind to platelets in the presence of optimal concentrations of either ristocetin or botrocetin. The mutant vWF also failed to interact with heparin, and with vWF monoclonal antibody AvW3, which blocks the binding of vWF to GPlb. In addition, mutant vWF showed reduced secretion from transfected cells concomitant with increased intracellular levels. These results confirm that the deletion is the genetic defect responsible for the reduced interaction of vWF with platelets. We have designated this new variant type 2M:Milwaukee-1 vWD. Our analysis suggests that the potential frequency of this phenotype in individuals diagnosed with type 1 vWD is about 0.5%.

Analysis of the structure and function of the von Willebrand factor A1 domain using targeted deletions and alanine-scanning mutagenesis.

von Willebrand factor (vWF) mediates the primary adhesion of platelets to sites of vascular damage through interaction with glycoprotein Ib (GPIb) of the platelet GPIb/IX complex. To investigate the vWF/GPIb interaction we introduced both in-frame deletions and substitutions into the vWF A1 domain. The introduction of nine sequential 20-amino acid deletions within the Cys509-Cys695 loop of the A1 domain caused the defective secretion of vWF from mammalian cells, and resulted in multimeric vWF without platelet-binding activity. In other experiments we substituted alanine for charged amino acids (residues 524, 534, 549, 552, 569-573, and 642-645) in proposed functional domains within the Cys509-Cys695 loop. All six substitution mutants showed normal secretion from transfected mammalian cells and bound to fixed platelets in the presence of botrocetin. In contrast, only mutants vWF-R524A and vWF-K549A showed significant binding to platelets in the presence of ristocetin. Mutant vWF-K549A showed increased platelet-binding at suboptimal concentrations of both botrocetin and ristocetin. These results suggest that the substituted amino acids do not play a critical role in the activation of vWF by botrocetin or in the direct interaction of vWF with the GPIb/IX complex. However, the charged amino acids at positions 534, 552, 569-573, and 642-645 do play an important role in the ristocetin-induced binding of vWF to platelets. The interaction of vWF with heparin was significantly reduced by substitution of Lys residues 642-645, indicating that these residues may form part of a heparin-binding domain in the carboxy-terminal half of the Cys509-Cys695 loop.

The defective interaction between von Willebrand factor and factor VIII in a patient with type 1 von Willebrand disease is caused by substitution of Arg19 and His54 in mature von Willebrand factor.

In this report we describe the further investigation of the von Willebrand factor (vWF)/FVIII interaction in a type 1 von Willebrand disease patient characterized by discrepant VIII:C levels as determined by one-stage and two-stage VIII:C assays. A solid-phase binding assay shows that this patient's plasma vWF is moderately defective in capturing recombinant FVIII. Sequence analysis of the FVIII-binding domain encoded by the vWF mRNA of the affected individual identified mutations in both vWF alleles. In allele A, the mutations C2344T and T2451A result in the substitution of Trp for Arg19 (R19W) and of G1n for His54 (H54Q) in mature vWF, respectively. This allele also contains a reported polymorphism (A2365G, Thr26Ala). Allele B, which is underexpressed at the RNA level, contains a one-nucleotide deletion in the FVIII-binding domain (delta G2515) that results in the premature termination of translation. Analysis of the binding of FVIII by full-length vWF transiently expressed in COS-7 cells confirms that the combined R19W and H54Q substitutions are the cause of the defective vWF/FVIII interaction in this patient. The FVIII-binding defect of vWF containing either mutation alone is approximately half that of the double mutant, which suggests that the effect of these mutations is additive. The mutant proteins are recognized equally well by vWF monoclonal antibodies MBC105.4, 32B12, and 31H3, which block the binding of FVIII by vWF, indicating that amino acids Arg19, Thr26, and His54 are not critical residues in the epitopes of these antibodies.

Bromovirus RNA replication and transcription require compatibility between the polymerase- and helicase-like viral RNA synthesis proteins.

The positive-strand RNA bromoviruses encode two nonstructural proteins, 1a and 2a, involved in RNA-dependent RNA replication. These proteins have extensive sequence similarities with methyltransferase, helicase, and polymerase proteins of other plant and animal viruses. 1a and 2a can also form a complex in vitro. To explore whether 1a-2a interaction is required for RNA replication in vivo, we reassorted the 1a and 2a genes from two different bromoviruses, brome mosaic virus (BMV) and cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV). 1a and 2a were expressed independently of viral replication by using RNA- or DNA-based transient expression, and their in vivo RNA replication activities were tested in protoplasts with BMV and CCMV RNA3 templates. RNA-based transient expression confirmed prior indications that bromovirus RNA replication is more sensitive to reductions in 1a expression than to reductions in 2a expression. DNA-based expression of the homologous combinations of 1a and 2a supported high levels of RNA synthesis, but both 1a-2a heterologous combinations exhibited RNA synthesis defects. The combination of CCMV 1a and BMV 2a did not support detectable synthesis of negative-strand, positive-strand, or subgenomic RNA. The converse combination of BMV 1a and CCMV 2a was preferentially defective in positive-strand and subgenomic RNA accumulation, showing that 1a-2a interaction is involved in these processes in ways distinct from negative-strand RNA synthesis, which was only slightly affected. These results indicate that at least some functions of 1a and 2a operate in a mutually dependent manner in vivo and that the mechanisms of positive- and negative-strand RNA synthesis are differentiated in part by features of such interactions.

Isolation and characterization of three families of auxin down-regulated cDNA clones.

Five cDNA clones (ADR6, ADR11-1, ADR11-2, ADR12-1 and ADR12-2), representing three families of auxin down-regulated (ADR) genes were isolated and characterized. These were isolated by screening a lambda Zap cDNA library with the partial cDNA clones p6, p11 and p12, isolated earlier (Baulcombe and Key, J Biol Chem 255: 8907-8913, 1980). Hybrid-select translation of ADR6, ADR11-2 and ADR12-2 clones produced polypeptides of 33 kDa 22.5 kDa and a 6 and 7 kDa respectively, when analyzed by SDS-PAGE. ADR6 and ADR12-2 gave one and two spots, respectively, on an IEF-SDS 2D gel. ADR11-2 probably encodes a basic protein as it was only resolved on non-equilibrium pH gradient gel electrophoresis (NEPHGE). Genomic Southern blot analysis of ADR6, ADR11 and ADR12 suggests that each represents a small multigene family. The RNA levels corresponding to ADR6, ADR11 and ADR12 decrease in response to applied auxin by 100-, 15- and 10-fold, respectively (Baulcombe and Key, 1980). Runoff transcription, done in the presence and absence of auxin, showed that the rate of transcription of the genes corresponding to ADR6, ADR11-2 and ADR12-2 was reduced in the presence of auxin, but the decrease was small relative to the decrease in the cytoplasmic levels of these mRNAs, in response to auxin. A comparative analysis of the influence of auxin on in vitro transcription and steady state RNA levels corresponding to these ADR cDNAs suggests that the decrease in rate of transcription due to auxin is not enough to account for the auxin-induced decrease in the steady state levels. Northern analysis showed developmental and organ/tissue-specific response of these ADR genes. Furthermore, the expression of the genes corresponding to ADR6 and ADR12-1 appears to be up-regulated by light, whereas the gene corresponding to ADR11 appears to be down-regulated by light.

Expressed full-length von Willebrand factor containing missense mutations linked to type IIB von Willebrand disease shows enhanced binding to platelets.

von Willebrand disease (vWD) variant type IIB is an inherited bleeding disorder resulting from the spontaneous binding of defective von Willebrand factor (vWF) to platelets in vivo. To identify the molecular basis for type IIB vWD, we used reverse transcription and the polymerase chain reaction to examine the nucleotide sequence of the platelet glycoprotein (GP) Ib-binding domain encoded by the vWF messenger RNA in an affected family, and in an unrelated affected individual. We identified two different missense mutations linked with expression of type IIB vWD. These mutations, which lead to Pro574----Leu and Val553----Met substitutions, respectively, were each introduced into the full-length vWF expression vector pvW198, and both wild-type (wt) and mutant vWF were transiently expressed in COS-7 cells. Binding assays showed that both mutant proteins showed significant non-ristocetin-dependent spontaneous binding to platelets, and that complete binding was induced by low concentrations of ristocetin that failed to induce platelet binding by wt vWF. The vWF/platelet interaction was inhibited by the anti-vWF monoclonal antibody (MoAb) AvW3, and the anti-GPIb MoAb AP1, which both block vWF binding to platelets. These results show that the identified missense mutations are the likely basis for the expression of type IIB vWD in these affected individuals.

Abnormal binding of factor VIII is linked with the substitution of glutamine for arginine 91 in von Willebrand factor in a variant form of von Willebrand disease.

von Willebrand factor (vWf) is a multimeric plasma glycoprotein that functions in hemostasis as the initiator of platelet adhesion to damaged blood vessels and as the carrier of Factor VIII (FVIII). Montgomery et al. (Montgomery, R.R., Hathaway, W.E., Johnson, J., Jacobsen, L., and Muntean, W. (1982) Blood 60, 201-207) reported a variant of von Willebrand disease characterized by the abnormal interaction between FVIII and a defective vWf. To identify the molecular basis of this abnormal interaction, we isolated platelet RNA from members of one of the affected families and determined the nucleotide sequence of the FVIII-binding domain encoded by the vWf mRNA. A single G to A transition at nucleotide 2561 was linked with disease expression and results in the substitution of Gln for Arg91 in mature vWf. A restriction fragment containing this mutation was introduced into a full-length vWf expression vector, and both wild type and mutant vWf were expressed in COS-7 cells. In a solid-phase binding assay, expressed vWf was captured with anti-vWf monoclonal antibody AVW1 and then incubated with 6.25-400 milliunits of recombinant FVIII. After washing, vWf-bound FVIII activity was determined with a chromogenic assay. Mutant vWf showed reduced binding of FVIII compared with wild type, suggesting that the substitution of Gln for Arg91 is the likely basis for the abnormal vWf/FVIII interaction in this von Willebrand disease variant.

Analysis of the role of brome mosaic virus 1a protein domains in RNA replication, using linker insertion mutagenesis.

Brome mosaic virus (BMV) belongs to a "superfamily" of plant and animal positive-strand RNA viruses that share, among other features, three large domains of conserved sequence in nonstructural proteins involved in RNA replication. Two of these domains reside in the 109-kDa BMV 1a protein. To examine the role of 1a, we used biologically active cDNA clones of BMV RNA1 to construct a series of linker insertion mutants bearing two-codon insertions dispersed throughout the 1a gene. The majority of these mutations blocked BMV RNA replication in protoplasts, indicating that both intervirally conserved domains function in RNA replication. Coinoculation tests with a large number of mutant combinations failed to reveal detectable complementation between mutations in the N- and C-terminal conserved domains, implying that these two domains either function in some directly interdependent fashion or must be present in the same protein. Four widely spaced mutations with temperature-sensitive (ts) defects in RNA replication were identified, including a strongly ts insertion near the nucleotide-binding consensus of the helicaselike C-terminal domain. Temperature shift experiments with this mutant show that 1a protein is required for continued accumulation of all classes of viral RNA (positive strand, negative strand, and subgenomic) and is required for at least the first 10 h of infection. ts mutations were also identified in the 3' noncoding region of RNA1, 5' to conserved sequences previously implicated in cis for replication. Under nonpermissive conditions, the cis-acting partial inhibition of RNA1 accumulation caused by these noncoding mutations was also associated with reduced levels of the other BMV genomic RNAs. Comparison with previous BMV mutant results suggests that RNA replication is more sensitive to reductions in expression of 1a than of 2a, the other BMV-encoded protein involved in replication.