In multi electron beam systems, "Neighbours Matter".

In the Multi beam source (MBS) of our Multi Beam Scanning Electron Microscope (MBSEM), an aperture lens array (ALA) splits the emission cone of the Schottky field emitter into multiple beamlets. When the apertures in the ALA are close to each other, the ALA can introduce aberrations to these beamlets through the electrostatic interaction of neighbouring apertures with each aperture's lens field. When the apertures are arranged in a square grid pattern, the aberration causes fourfold astigmatism. The effect on the beam spot is analyzed through a combination of 3D simulations and experimental validation. To counterbalance the fourfold astigmatism, a correction scheme is proposed in which a slightly non-round profile is applied to the aperture lenses.

Principles of electron wave front modulation with two miniature electron mirrors.

We have analyzed the possibilities of wave front shaping with miniature patterned electron mirrors through the WKB approximation. Based on this, we propose a microscopy scheme that uses two miniature electron mirrors on an auxiliary optical axis that is in parallel with the microscope axis. A design for this microscopy scheme is presented for which the two axes can be spatially separated by as little as 1 mm. We first provide a mathematical relationship between the electric potential and the accumulated phase modulation of the reflected electron wave front using the WKB approximation. Next, we derive the electric field in front of the mirror, as a function of a topographic or pixel wise excited mirror pattern. With this, we can relate the effect of a mirror pattern onto the near-field phase, or far field intensity distribution and use this to provide a first optical insight into the functioning of the patterned mirror. The equations can only be applied numerically, for which we provide a description of the relevant numerical methods. Finally, these methods are applied to find mirror patterns for controlled beam diffraction efficiency, beam mode conversion, and an arbitrary phase and amplitude distribution. The successful realization of the proposed methods would enable arbitrary shaping of the wave front without electron-matter interaction, and hence we coin the term virtual phase plate for this design. The design may also enable the experimental realization of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer for electrons, as well as interaction-free measurements of radiation sensitive specimen.

Flat electron mirror.

Electron beams can be reflected by an electrode that is at a more negative potential than the cathode from which the beam is emitted. We want to design a mirror with a flat mirror electrode where the electrons are reflected at a plane very close to the electrode. The wave front of an electron can then be shaped when the mirror contains a surface topography or modulated potential. However, electron beams reflected by flat electron mirrors are usually characterized by high coefficients of chromatic and spherical aberration. When the mirror is combined with an electrostatic lens to form a tetrode mirror system, the situation deteriorates even further. This places a restrictive limit on the maximum aperture angle of the beam, and consequently also limits the attainable resolution at the image plane. We have numerically studied the dependence of these aberrations as a function of design parameters of the tetrode mirror consisting of a ground, lens, cap, and mirror electrode, and limited ourselves to only using flat electrodes with round apertures, at fixed electrode spacing. It turns out that the third order spherical aberration can be made negative. The negative third order aberration is then used to partially compensate the positive fifth order aberration. This way, a system configuration is obtained that, at 2 keV beam energy, provides a diffraction limited resolution of 7.6 nm at an image plane 25 mm from the mirror at beam semi-angles of 2.3 mrad, enabling an illumination radius of 40 µm at the mirror. The presented tetrode mirror design could spark innovative use of patterned electron mirrors as phase plates for electron microscopy in general, and for use as coherent beam splitters in Quantum Electron Microscopy in particular. An appendix presents a method to calculate the spot size of a focused beam in the presence of both third and fifth order spherical aberration coefficients, which is also applicable to Scanning (Transmission) Electron Microscopes with aberration correctors.

Pulse length, energy spread, and temporal evolution of electron pulses generated with an ultrafast beam blanker.

Crucial for the field of ultrafast electron microscopy is the creation of sub-picosecond, high brightness electron pulses. The use of a blanker to chop the beam that originates from a high brightness Schottky source may provide an attractive alternative to direct pulsed laser illumination of the source. We have recently presented the concept of a laser-triggered ultrafast beam blanker and argued that generation of 100 fs pulses could be possible [Weppelman et al., Ultramicroscopy 184, 8-17 (2017)]. However, a detailed analysis of the influence of a deflection field changing sign on sub-picoseconds time scale on the quality of the resulting electron pulses has so far been lacking. Here, we present such an analysis using time-dependent, three-dimensional numerical simulations to evaluate the time-evolution of deflection fields in and around a micrometers-scale deflector connected to a photo-conductive switch. Further particle tracing through the time-dependent fields allows us to evaluate beam quality parameters such as energy spread and temporal broadening. We show that with a shielded, "tunnel-type" design of the beam blanker limiting the spatial extent of fringe fields outside the blanker, the blanker-induced energy spread can be limited to 0.5 eV. Moreover, our results confirm that it could be possible to bring laser-triggered 100 fs focused electron pulses on the sample using a miniaturized ultrafast beam blanker. This would enable us to resolve ultrafast dynamics using focused electron pulses in an SEM or STEM.

Concept and design of a beam blanker with integrated photoconductive switch for ultrafast electron microscopy.

We present a new method to create ultrashort electron pulses by integrating a photoconductive switch with an electrostatic deflector. This paper discusses the feasibility of such a system by analytical and numerical calculations. We argue that ultrafast electron pulses can be achieved for micrometer scale dimensions of the blanker, which are feasible with MEMS-based fabrication technology. According to basic models, the design presented in this paper is capable of generating 100 fs electron pulses with spatial resolutions of less than 10 nm. Our concept for an ultrafast beam blanker (UFB) may provide an attractive alternative to perform ultrafast electron microscopy, as it does not require modification of the microscope nor realignment between DC and pulsed mode of operation. Moreover, only low laser pulse energies are required. Due to its small dimensions the UFB can be inserted in the beam line of a commercial microscope via standard entry ports for blankers or variable apertures. The use of a photoconductive switch ensures minimal jitter between laser and electron pulses.

Designs for a quantum electron microscope.

One of the astounding consequences of quantum mechanics is that it allows the detection of a target using an incident probe, with only a low probability of interaction of the probe and the target. This 'quantum weirdness' could be applied in the field of electron microscopy to generate images of beam-sensitive specimens with substantially reduced damage to the specimen. A reduction of beam-induced damage to specimens is especially of great importance if it can enable imaging of biological specimens with atomic resolution. Following a recent suggestion that interaction-free measurements are possible with electrons, we now analyze the difficulties of actually building an atomic resolution interaction-free electron microscope, or "quantum electron microscope". A quantum electron microscope would require a number of unique components not found in conventional transmission electron microscopes. These components include a coherent electron beam-splitter or two-state-coupler, and a resonator structure to allow each electron to interrogate the specimen multiple times, thus supporting high success probabilities for interaction-free detection of the specimen. Different system designs are presented here, which are based on four different choices of two-state-couplers: a thin crystal, a grating mirror, a standing light wave and an electro-dynamical pseudopotential. Challenges for the detailed electron optical design are identified as future directions for development. While it is concluded that it should be possible to build an atomic resolution quantum electron microscope, we have also identified a number of hurdles to the development of such a microscope and further theoretical investigations that will be required to enable a complete interpretation of the images produced by such a microscope.

Integration of a high-NA light microscope in a scanning electron microscope.

We present an integrated light-electron microscope in which an inverted high-NA objective lens is positioned inside a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The SEM objective lens and the light objective lens have a common axis and focal plane, allowing high-resolution optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy on the same area of a sample simultaneously. Components for light illumination and detection can be mounted outside the vacuum, enabling flexibility in the construction of the light microscope. The light objective lens can be positioned underneath the SEM objective lens during operation for sub-10 µm alignment of the fields of view of the light and electron microscopes. We demonstrate in situ epifluorescence microscopy in the SEM with a numerical aperture of 1.4 using vacuum-compatible immersion oil. For a 40-nm-diameter fluorescent polymer nanoparticle, an intensity profile with a FWHM of 380 nm is measured whereas the SEM performance is uncompromised. The integrated instrument may offer new possibilities for correlative light and electron microscopy in the life sciences as well as in physics and chemistry.

Simulation of ion imaging: sputtering, contrast, noise.

Scanning ion microscopy has received a boost in the last decade, thanks to the development of novel ion sources employing light ions, like He(+), or ions from inert gases, like Ne(+) and Ar(+). Scanning ion images, however, might not be as easy to interpret as SEM micrographs. The contrast mechanisms are different, and there is always a certain degree of sample sputtering. The latter effect, on the one hand, prevents assessing the resolution on the basis of a single image, and, on the other hand, limits the probing time and thus the signal-to-noise ratio that can be obtained. In order to fully simulate what happens when energetic ions impact on a sample, a Monte Carlo approach is often used. In this paper, a different approach is proposed. The contrast is simulated using curves of secondary electron yields versus the incidence angle of the beam, while the surface modification prediction is based on similar curves for the sputtering yield. Finally, Poisson noise from primary ions and secondary electrons is added to the image. It is shown that the evaluation of an ion imaging tool cannot be condensed in a single number, like the spot size or the edge steepness, but must be based on a more complex analysis taking into account at least three parameters: sputtering, contrast and signal-to-noise ratio. It is also pointed out that noise contributions from the detector cannot be neglected for they can actually be the limiting factor in imaging with focused ion beams. While providing already good agreement with experimental data in some imaging aspects, the proposed approach is highly modular. Further effects, like edge enhancement and detection, can be added separately.

Design of an aberration corrected low-voltage SEM.

The low-voltage foil corrector is a novel type of foil aberration corrector that can correct for both the spherical and chromatic aberration simultaneously. In order to give a realistic example of the capabilities of this corrector, a design for a low-voltage scanning electron microscope with the low-voltage foil corrector is presented. A fully electrostatic column has been designed and characterised by using aberration integrals and ray tracing calculations. The amount of aberration correction can be adjusted relatively easy. The third order spherical and the first order chromatic aberration can be completely cancelled. In the zero current limit, a FW50 probe size of 1.0 nm at 1 kV can be obtained. This probe size is mainly limited by diffraction and by the fifth order spherical aberration.

'Collapsing rings' on Schottky electron emitters.

The electron beam in systems that use a Schottky emitter as the electron source can display periodic fluctuations when the emitter is operated at an extraction voltage that gives a relatively low field strength at the tip. In the past, these fluctuations have been associated with the so-called "collapsing rings" without much further information. In this paper, the tip's geometry changes associated with these beam instabilities are investigated in more detail by recording the evolution of the emission pattern of a Schottky emitter showing 'collapsing rings' for different operating conditions. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of different Schottky emitters have been used to support the interpretation. The beam instabilities generally occur with large intervals. It was found, however, that the emitter is changing its tip end geometry continuously and in a repetitive process. Such a cycle starts with a {100} facet at the tip end. This facet decreases in size, and then a large ring-shaped step is formed that changes the tip end geometry into one with a {100} island of tens of nanometers high, on top of a {100} facet. The cycle is finished when the atoms of the island all have been transported away and the facet underneath is fully exposed. The cleaning up of the island was found to be a repetitive process in itself, in which each time the (uppermost) island is reduced in size, and then splits into two islands lying on top of each other. We found that at practical operating conditions, the geometry of the stacked islands is typically asymmetric, and becomes symmetric only for higher temperatures and lower fields. The characteristic beam current fluctuations are associated with island edges moving near or in the area that delivers the electrons for the beam. The relatively constant beam current in between fluctuations is the net result of the two effects: the current density on the facet center increases due to the increasing local field strength with decreasing facet diameter, but the beam divergence between the facet and the extractor also increases, as a consequence of the changing geometry. Although concealed by the relatively constant beam current in between the fluctuations, for a collapsing emitter the important properties as the brightness, energy spread, and virtual source are thus changing continuously. The known remedy against beam instabilities is to increase the extraction voltage, but this is usually a reactive response: the voltage is increased after a fluctuation has occurred. This study suggests that by monitoring the total tip end current and/or the field enhancement factor of the tip, the facet size reduction that heralds an instability can be detected early enough to prevent it from happening.

Growth behavior near the ultimate resolution of nanometer-scale focused electron beam-induced deposition.

An attempt has been made to reach the ultimate spatial resolution for electron beam-induced deposition (EBID) using W(CO)(6) as a precursor. The smallest dots that have been written have an average diameter of 0.72 nm at full width at half maximum (FWHM). A study of the nucleation stage revealed that the growth is different for each dot, despite identical growth conditions. The center of mass of each dot is not exactly on the position irradiated by the e-beam but on a random spot close to the irradiated spot. Also, the growth rate is not constant during deposition and the final deposited volume varies from dot to dot. The annular dark field signal was recorded during growth in the hope to find discrete steps in the signal which would be evidence of the one-by-one deposition of single molecules. Discrete steps were not observed, but by combining atomic force microscope measurements and a statistical analysis of the deposited volumes, it was possible to estimate the average volume of the units of which the deposits consist. It is concluded that the volume per unit is as small as 0.4 nm(3), less than twice the volume of a single W(CO)(6) molecule in the solid phase.

Resolution limit for electron beam-induced deposition on thick substrates.

Recently, the fabrication resolution in electron beam-induced deposition (EBID) has improved significantly. Dots with an average diameter of 1 nm have been made. These results were all obtained in transmission electron microscopes on thin samples. As one may think that such resolution can be achieved on thin samples only, it is the objective of this paper to show that this should also be possible on thick samples. For that purpose we use Monte Carlo simulations of the electron-sample interaction and determine the surface area where secondary electrons are emitted. Assuming that these electrons cause the deposition in EBID, a comparison can be made between deposition on a thin and a thick sample. The Monte Carlo code we developed will be described and applied to the deposition induced by a 200 keV primary electron beam on an ultra-thin (10 nm) and a bulk-like (1,000 nm) Cu sample. Near the point of incidence of the primary beam, the deposit size is independent of the substrate thickness, such that a 1-nm resolution should be possible to achieve on a thick substrate as well. Thicker substrates only affect the tails of the deposit distribution which contain more mass than thin substrate deposit tails.

Diffraction patterns of artificial two-dimensional crystals synthesized in situ in an environmental scanning transmission electron microscope.

In this study, we demonstrated the use of electron-beam-induced deposition for synthesis of artificial two-dimensional crystals with an in situ scanning transmission electron microscope. The structures were deposited from W(CO)6 in an environmental scanning transmission electron microscope on a 30-nm-thick Si3N4 substrate. We present clear electron beam diffraction patterns taken from those structures. The distance between the diffraction peaks corresponded to the dot spacing in the self-made surface crystal. We propose using these arrays of dots as anchor points for making artificial crystals for diffraction analysis of weakly scattering or beam-sensitive molecules such as proteins.

Shot noise in electron-beam lithography and line-width measurements.

Electron-beam lithography is used extensively in nanoscience and technology for making masks for the semiconductor industry and, on a limited scale, for maskless lithography: that is, writing the patterns directly on the chip. We expect the latter application to extend in the years to come. Control of the dimensions of the written structures is essential in the semiconductor industry. For 45 nm generation, which is presently under development and should reach production at the end of the decade, the required control over the line width is between 1.5 and 5 nm, depending on the application. One of the factors of influence on the line-width control is the statistics in the number of electrons illuminating the resist. This effect gives line edge roughness, or in other words a lack of control over the local position of a resist edge. This has long been recognized and often discussed. Recently, we developed an analytic model for the line edge position variation, which we shall illustrate and expand in this paper. The model, supported by Monte Carlo simulations, demonstrates that the line-width variation is inversely proportional to the dose used for the illumination of the resist. This makes it impossible to increase the lithography throughput by developing ultrasensitive resists. For 45 nm features written with a typical resolution of 30 nm, a 30 microC/cm2 resist gives 3 nm line-width variation over line segments of 45 nm long. The line width is usually measured in an adapted critical dimension scanning electron microscope (CD-SEM). This measurement needs to be more precise than the result of the lithography step, so the requirements are typically sub-nm. Apart from all the problems to avoid systematic errors, this measurement also suffers from statistical variations, resulting from the finite number of electrons used for the measurement. In this paper we shall derive an estimate for that variation with a similar model as used for the shot noise effect in the lithography step. One of the conclusions is that for the most precise measurements of the line width it is not advisable to tune the CD-SEM for the best resolution. It is better to allow a larger probe size of the electron beam because that can be accompanied by a much larger current and thus a decrease in the noise level.

Aberration model of a multibeam scanning microscope for electron beam-induced deposition.

A multibeam electron beam-induced deposition (EBID) system is presented, which aims at the fabrication of sub-10 nm structures with EBID. This system consists of a multibeam source (MBS) module, delivering 100 virtual sources and a standard scanning electron microscope (SEM) column to image the 100 sources onto a wafer. In the proposed concept, beamlets are traveling off-axis through the projection lenses, introducing off-axis aberrations. An analytical description of the projection lens aberrations is derived and the system is optimized by tuning a field lens, which only affects the direction of the beamlets as they enter the projection system. It is found that this lens must be excited such that all beamlets go through the center of the last projection lens. This is an important design rule for the total system.

Low-energy foil aberration corrector.

A spherical and chromatic aberration corrector for electron microscopes is proposed, consisting of a thin foil sandwiched between two apertures. The electrons are retarded at the foil to almost zero energy, so that they can travel ballistically through the foil. It is shown that such a low-voltage corrector has a negative spherical aberration for not too large distances between aperture and foil, as well as a negative chromatic aberration. For various distances the third- and fifth-order spherical aberration coefficients and the first- and second-order chromatic aberration coefficients are calculated using ray tracing. Provided that the foils have sufficient electron transmission the corrector is able to correct the third-order spherical aberration and the first-order chromatic aberration of a typical low-voltage scanning electron microscope. Preliminary results show that the fifth-order spherical aberration and the second-order chromatic aberration can be kept sufficiently low.

Construction and characterization of the fringe field monochromator for a field emission gun

Although some microscopes have shown stabilities sufficient to attain below 0.1 eV spectral resolution in high-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy, the intrinsic energy width of the high brightness source (0.3-0.6 eV) has been limiting the resolution. To lower the energy width of the source to 50 meV without unnecessary loss of brightness, a monochromator has been designed consisting of a short (4 mm) fringe field Wien filter and a 150 nm energy selection slit (nanoslit) both to be incorporated in the gun area of the microscope. A prototype has been built and tested in an ultra-high-vacuum setup (10(-9) mbar). The monochromator, operating on a Schottky field emission gun, showed stable and reproducible operation. The nanoslits did not contaminate and the structure remained stable. By measuring the current through the slit structure a direct image of the beam in the monochromator could be attained and the monochromator could be aligned without the use of a microscope. Good dispersed imaging conditions were found indicating an ultimate resolution of 55 meV. A Mark II fringe field monochromator (FFM) was designed and constructed compatible with the cold tungsten field emitter of the VG scanning transmission microscope. The monochromator was incorporated in the gun area of the microscope at IBM T.J. Watson research center, New York. The monochromator was aligned on 100 kV and the energy distribution measured using the monochromator displayed a below 50 meV filtering capability. The retarding Wien filter spectrometer was used to show a 61 meV EELS system resolution. The FFM is shown to be a monochromator which can be aligned without the use of the electron microscope. This makes it directly applicable for scanning transmission microscopy and low-voltage scanning electron microscopy, where it can lower the resolution loss which is caused by chromatic blur of the spot.