ABSTRACT
UNLABELLED: Essentials Evidence suggests a comorbidity between hyperhomocysteinemia (HHC) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Homocysteine (HC) could affect the ß-amyloid (Aß)-fibrinogen interaction in AD pathology. AD patients with concomitant HHC have increased fibrin and Aß deposits in their brains. HC contributes to AD pathology via the Aß-fibrinogen interaction. SUMMARY: Background Accumulating clinical evidence suggests that hyperhomocysteinemia (HHC) is correlated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia. Objective This study was carried out to elucidate the specific role of elevated homocysteine (HC) levels in AD pathophysiology. Methods Immunohistochemistry was used to examine ß-amyloid (Aß) deposition along blood vessels, also known as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), fibrin(ogen) deposition, and their correlation to each other in the brains of AD patients with and without HHC. To study AD-HHC co-morbidity in detail, an AD mouse model was administered a high methionine diet for several months. Parenchymal Aß plaques, CAA-positive vessels and fibrin deposits were then assessed by immunohistochemistry at different stages of AD progression. Memory deficits were evaluated with contextual fear conditioning and the Barnes maze. Additionally, the effect of HC and its metabolite, homocysteine thiolactone (HCTL), on the Aß-fibrinogen interaction was analyzed by pull-down, ELISA and fibrin clot formation and fibrinolysis assays in vitro. Results We found increased fibrin(ogen) levels and Aß deposits in the blood vessels and brain parenchyma of AD patients with HHC. We demonstrate that HC and HCTL enhance the interaction between fibrinogen and Aß, promote the formation of tighter fibrin clots and delay clot fibrinolysis. Additionally, we show that diet-induced HHC in an AD mouse model leads to severe CAA and parenchymal Aß deposition, as well as significant impairments in learning and memory. Conclusions These findings suggest that elevated levels of plasma HC/HCTL contribute to AD pathology via the Aß-fibrin(ogen) interaction.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/complications , Amyloid beta-Peptides/chemistry , Fibrinogen/chemistry , Hyperhomocysteinemia/complications , Alzheimer Disease/drug therapy , Animals , Biotinylation , Brain/pathology , Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy/pathology , Dementia, Vascular/complications , Dementia, Vascular/drug therapy , Disease Models, Animal , Disease Progression , Fibrin/chemistry , Fibrinolysis , Humans , Hyperhomocysteinemia/drug therapy , Immunohistochemistry , Maze Learning , Memory , Methionine/chemistry , Mice , Mice, Transgenic , Plaque, Amyloid/pathology , Protein BindingABSTRACT
Though the GluK4 kainate receptor subunit shows limited homology and a restricted expression pattern relative to other kainate receptor subunits, its ablation results in distinct behavioral and molecular phenotypes. GluK4 knockout mice demonstrated impairments in memory acquisition and recall in a Morris water maze test, suggesting a previously unreported role for kainate receptors in spatial memory. GluK4 knockout mice also showed marked hyperactivity and impaired pre-pulse inhibition, thereby mirroring two of the hallmark endophenotypes of patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Furthermore, we found that GluK4 is a key mediator of excitotoxic neurodegeneration: GluK4 knockout mice showed robust neuroprotection in the CA3 region of the hippocampus following intrahippocampal injection of kainate and widespread neuroprotection throughout the hippocampus following hypoxia-ischemia. Biochemical analysis of kainate- or sham-treated wild-type and GluK4 knockout hippocampal tissue suggests that GluK4 may act through the JNK pathway to regulate the molecular cascades that lead to excitotoxicity. Together, our findings suggest that GluK4 may be relevant to the understanding and treatment of human neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders.
Subject(s)
Affect/physiology , Memory/physiology , Neurodegenerative Diseases/chemically induced , Neurodegenerative Diseases/genetics , Receptors, Kainic Acid/physiology , Animals , Blotting, Western , Brain Ischemia/physiopathology , Brain Ischemia/psychology , CA3 Region, Hippocampal/physiology , Cell Death/drug effects , Evoked Potentials, Auditory, Brain Stem/drug effects , Excitatory Amino Acid Agonists/administration & dosage , Excitatory Amino Acid Agonists/toxicity , Hippocampus , Hypoxia, Brain/physiopathology , Hypoxia, Brain/psychology , JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/genetics , Kainic Acid/administration & dosage , Kainic Acid/toxicity , Maze Learning/drug effects , Maze Learning/physiology , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Microinjections , Motor Activity/drug effects , Neurons/drug effects , Receptors, Kainic Acid/genetics , Reflex, Startle/drug effects , Stereotaxic Techniques , Stroke/genetics , Stroke/pathologyABSTRACT
Recent research suggests an involvement of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) gene products in modulating cocaine reward and addiction-like behaviors in rodents. In this study, we investigated whether cocaine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) alters POMC gene expression in the brain or pituitary of rats. Sprague-Dawley rats were conditioned with 4 injections of 0, 10 or 30 mg/kg cocaine (i.p.) over 8 days and tested 4 days after the last conditioning session. Another group received the same pattern of cocaine injections without conditioning. POMC mRNA levels in the hypothalamus (including arcuate nucleus), amygdala and anterior pituitary, as well as plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels were measured. Cocaine place conditioning at 10 and 30 mg/kg doses increased POMC mRNA levels in a dose-dependent manner in the hypothalamus, with no effect in the amygdala. Cocaine CPP had no effect on POMC mRNA levels in the anterior pituitary or on plasma ACTH or corticosterone levels. In rats that received cocaine at 30 mg/kg without conditioning, there was no such effect on hypothalamic POMC mRNA levels. Alteration of POMC gene expression in the hypothalamus is region-specific after cocaine place conditioning, and dose-dependent. The increased POMC gene expression in the hypothalamus suggests that it is involved in the reward/learning process of cocaine-induced conditioning.
Subject(s)
Cocaine-Related Disorders/physiopathology , Cocaine/pharmacology , Conditioning, Psychological/drug effects , Hypothalamus/drug effects , Hypothalamus/physiology , Pro-Opiomelanocortin/genetics , Amygdala/drug effects , Amygdala/physiology , Animals , Conditioning, Psychological/physiology , Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors/pharmacology , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Gene Expression/drug effects , Gene Expression/physiology , Male , Pituitary Gland/drug effects , Pituitary Gland/physiology , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Rats , Rats, Sprague-Dawley , RewardABSTRACT
Binocular information has been shown to be important for the programming and control of reaching and grasping. But even without binocular vision, people are still able to reach out and pick up objects accurately - albeit less efficiently. As part of a continuing investigation into the role that monocular cues play in visuomotor control, we examined whether or not subjects could use retinal motion information, derived from movements of the head, to help program and control reaching and grasping movements when binocular vision is denied. Subjects reached out in the dark to an illuminated sphere presented at eye-level, under both monocular and binocular viewing conditions with their head either free to move or restrained. When subjects viewed the display monocularly, they showed fewer on-line corrections when they were allowed to move their head. No such difference in performance was seen when subjects were allowed a full binocular view. This study, combined with previous work with neurological patients, confirms that the visuomotor system "prefers" to use binocular vision but, when this information is not available, can fall back on other monocular depth cues, such as information produced by motion of the object (and the scene) on the retina, to help program and control manual prehension.