Solvent effects of N,N-dimethylformamide and methanol on mass spectrometry imaging by tapping-mode scanning probe electrospray ionization.

Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is an effective technique for visualizing the distribution of lipids in tissues. The direct extraction-ionization methods using minute volumes of solvent for local components have the advantage of rapid measurement without any sample pretreatment. For effective MSI of tissues, it is necessary to understand the effect of solvent physicochemical properties on ion images. In this study, we report solvent effects on the lipid imaging of mouse brain tissue by tapping-mode scanning probe electrospray ionization (t-SPESI) which is capable of extraction-ionization using sub-pL solvents. To precisely measure lipid ions, we developed a measurement system incorporating a quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The differences in signal intensity and spatial resolution of lipid ion images were investigated using N,N-dimethylformamide (non-protic polar solvent), methanol (protic polar solvent) and their mixture. The mixed solvent was suitable for the protonation of lipids, and it provided high spatial resolution MSI. Results indicate that the mixed solvent improves the extractant transfer efficiency and minimizes charged droplets from an electrospray. The solvent selectivity study revealed the importance of solvent selection based on physicochemical properties for the advancement of MSI by t-SPESI.

CXCL9 is important for recruiting immune T cells into the brain and inducing an accumulation of the T cells to the areas of tachyzoite proliferation to prevent reactivation of chronic cerebral infection with Toxoplasma gondii.

T cells are required to maintain the latency of chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii in the brain. Here, we examined the role of non-glutamic acid-leucine-arginine CXC chemokine CXCL9 for T-cell recruitment to prevent reactivation of infection with T. gondii. Severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice were infected and treated with sulfadiazine to establish a chronic infection. Immune T cells from infected wild-type mice were transferred into the SCID mice in combination with treatment with anti-CXCL9 or control sera. Three days later, sulfadiazine was discontinued to initiate reactivation of infection. Numbers of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells isolated from the brains were markedly less in mice treated with anti-CXCL9 serum than in mice treated with control serum at 3 days after sulfadiazine discontinuation. Amounts of tachyzoite (acute stage form of T. gondii)-specific SAG1 mRNA and numbers of foci associated with tachyzoites were significantly greater in the former than the latter at 5 days after sulfadiazine discontinuation. An accumulation of CD3(+) T cells into the areas of tachyzoite growth was significantly less frequent in the SCID mice treated with anti-CXCL9 serum than in mice treated with control serum. These results indicate that CXCL9 is crucial for recruiting immune T cells into the brain and inducing an accumulation of the T cells into the areas where tachyzoites proliferate to prevent reactivation of chronic T. gondii infection.

Predominant interferon-γ-mediated expression of CXCL9, CXCL10, and CCL5 proteins in the brain during chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii in BALB/c mice resistant to development of toxoplasmic encephalitis.

We examined the role of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in expression of chemokine mRNA and proteins in the brain during chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii using BALB/c and BALB/c-background IFN-γ knockout (IFN-γ(-/-)) mice. BALB/c mice are genetically resistant to development of toxoplasmic encephalitis and establish a latent, chronic infection in the brain through IFN-γ-mediated immune responses. Amounts of mRNA for CXCL9/MIG, CXCL10/IP-10, CXCL11/I-TAC, CCL2/MCP-1, CCL3/MIP-1α, and CCL5/RANTES significantly increased in the brains of wild-type mice after infection. CXCL9/MIG, CXCL10/IP-10, and CCL5/RANTES mRNA were most abundant among these chemokines. An increase in amounts of mRNA for CXCL10/IP-10, CCL2/MCP-1, CCL3/MIP-1α, and CCL5/RANTES was also observed in the brains of IFN-γ(-/-) mice after infection, although CXCL10/I-10 and CCL5/RANTES mRNA levels in infected IFN-γ(-/-) mice were significantly lower than those of infected wild-type animals. Amounts of mRNA for CXCL9/MIG and CXCL11/I-TAC remained at the basal levels in infected IFN-γ(-/-) mice. When amounts of the chemokine proteins were examined in the brain homogenates of uninfected and infected mice of both strains, large amounts of CXCL9/MIG, CXCL10/IP-10, and CCL5/RANTES were detected only in infected wild-type animals. These results indicate that CXCL9/MIG, CXCL10/IP-10, and CCL5/RANTES are the chemokines predominantly induced in the brains of genetically resistant BALB/c mice during chronic infection with T. gondii, and their expression is dependent on IFN-γ.

Removal of Toxoplasma gondii cysts from the brain by perforin-mediated activity of CD8+ T cells.

Chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most common parasitic infections in humans. Formation of tissue cysts is the basis of persistence of the parasite in infected hosts, and this cyst stage has generally been regarded as untouchable. Here we provide the first evidence that the immune system can eliminate T. gondii cysts from the brains of infected hosts when immune T cells are transferred into infected immunodeficient animals that have already developed large numbers of cysts. This T cell-mediated immune process was associated with accumulation of microglia and macrophages around tissue cysts. CD8(+) immune T cells possess a potent activity to remove the cysts. The initiation of this process by CD8(+) T cells does not require their production of interferon-gamma, the major mediator to prevent proliferation of tachyzoites during acute infection, but does require perforin. These results suggest that CD8(+) T cells induce elimination of T. gondii cysts through their perforin-mediated cytotoxic activity. Our findings provide a new mechanism of the immune system to fight against chronic infection with T. gondii and suggest a possibility of developing a novel vaccine to eliminate cysts from patients with chronic infection and to prevent the establishment of chronic infection after a newly acquired infection.

Cathepsin G, a neutrophil protease, induces compact cell-cell adhesion in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells.

Cathepsin G is a serine protease secreted by activated neutrophils that play a role in the inflammatory response. Because neutrophils are known to be invading leukocytes in various tumors, their products may influence the characteristics of tumor cells such as the growth state, motility, and the adhesiveness between cells or the extracellular matrix. Here, we demonstrate that cathepsin G induces cell-cell adhesion of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells resulting from the contact inhibition of cell movement on fibronectin but not on type IV collagen. Cathepsin G subsequently induced cell condensation, a very compact cell colony, resulting due to the increased strength of E-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion. Cathepsin G action is protease activity-dependent and was inhibited by the presence of serine protease inhibitors. Cathepsin G promotes E-cadherin/catenin complex formation and Rap1 activation in MCF-7 cells, which reportedly regulates E-cadherin-based cell-cell junctions. Cathepsin G also promotes E-cadherin/protein kinase D1 (PKD1) complex formation, and Go6976, the selective PKD1 inhibitor, suppressed the cathepsin G-induced cell condensation. Our findings provide the first evidence that cathepsin G regulates E-cadherin function, suggesting that cathepsin G has a novel modulatory role against tumor cell-cell adhesion.

Inhibition of membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase at cell-matrix adhesions.

Membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) has been implicated in tumor invasion and metastasis. We previously reported that extracellular matrix degradation by MT1-MMP regulates cell migration via modulating sustained integrin-mediated signals. In this study, MT1-MMP-expressing cells were plated onto fibronectin-coated plates and monitored for cell-matrix adhesion formation and fibronectin degradation. The fibronectin was degraded and removed in line with the cell migration track. The migrating cells showed a polarized morphology and were in contact with the edge of fibronectin through the leading edge, in which cell-matrix adhesions are concentrated. Expression of MT1-MMP targeted to cell-matrix adhesions by fusing with the focal adhesion targeting (FAT) domain of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) promoted the initial fibronectin lysis at the cell periphery immediately after adhesion. These results suggest that fibronectin is degraded by MT1-MMP located at cell-matrix adhesions, which are concentrated at the leading edge of the migrating cells. To inhibit MT1-MMP at cell-matrix adhesion, the dominant negative form of MT1-MMP (MT1-Pex) was targeted to the cell-matrix adhesion by fusing with the FAT domain (MT1-Pex-FAT). MT1-Pex-FAT accumulated at cell-matrix adhesions and inhibited fibronectin degradation as well as FAK phosphorylation more effectively than parental MT1-Pex. MT1-Pex-FAT was also shown to suppress the invasion of tumor cells into three-dimensional collagen gel more strongly than MT1-Pex. These results suggest that MT1-MMP-mediated extracellular matrix lysis at cell-matrix adhesions induces the establishment of cell polarity, which facilitates cell-matrix adhesion turnover and subsequent cell migration. This model highlights the role of MT1-MMP at the leading edge of migrating cells.

Substrate choice of membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase is dictated by tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 levels.

Although tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) is known to be not only an inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) but also a cofactor for membrane-type 1 MMP (MT1-MMP)-mediated MMP-2 activation, it is still unclear how TIMP-2 regulates MMP-2 activation and cleavage of substrates by MT1-MMP. In the present study we examined the levels of cell-surface MT1-MMP, MMP-2 activation and cleavage of MT1-MMP substrates in 293T cells transfected with the MT1-MMP and TIMP-2 genes. Co-expression of TIMP-2 at an appropriate level increased the level of cell-surface MT1-MMP, both the TIMP-2-bound and free forms, and generated processed MMP-2 with gelatin-degrading activity. In contrast, MT1-MMP substrates testican-1 and syndecan-1 were cleaved by the cells expressing MT1-MMP, which was inhibited by TIMP-2 even at levels that stimulate MMP-2 activation. These results suggest that TIMP-2 environment determines MT1-MMP substrate choice between direct cleavage of its own substrates and MMP-2 activation.

Membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase modulates focal adhesion stability and cell migration.

Membrane-type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) plays an important role in extracellular matrix-induced cell migration and the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). We showed here that transfection of the MT1-MMP gene into HeLa cells promoted fibronectin-induced cell migration, which was accompanied by fibronectin degradation and reduction of stable focal adhesions, which function as anchors for actin-stress fibers. MT1-MMP expression attenuated integrin clustering that was induced by adhesion of cells to fibronectin. The attenuation of integrin clustering was abrogated by MT1-MMP inhibition with a synthetic MMP inhibitor, BB94. When cultured on fibronectin, HT1080 cells, which endogenously express MT1-MMP, showed so-called motile morphology with well-organized focal adhesion formation, well-oriented actin-stress fiber formation, and the lysis of fibronectin through trails of cell migration. Inhibition of endogenous MT1-MMP by BB94 treatment or expression of the MT1-MMP carboxyl-terminal domain, which negatively regulates MT1-MMP activity, resulted in the suppression of fibronectin lysis and cell migration. BB94 treatment promoted stable focal adhesion formation concomitant with enhanced phosphorylation of tyrosine 397 of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and reduced ERK activation. These results suggest that lysis of the extracellular matrix by MT1-MMP promotes focal adhesion turnover and subsequent ERK activation, which in turn stimulates cell migration.

Induction of multicellular 3-D spheroids of MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells by neutrophil-derived cathepsin G and elastase.

In tumor metastasis, multicellular aggregates of tumor cells form and disseminate into the blood or lymph vessels from the tumor mass, following the formation of tumor cell emboli in distant vessels. However, the mechanism by which aggregates form in the tumor mass is unknown. Neutrophils often exist in tumors and are considered to affect tumor development. We observed that neutrophils had the capacity to induce the aggregation of MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells adhering to culture substrates. When MCF-7 cells were cultured with rat inflammatory neutrophils, the soluble fraction of their lysate, and the conditioned medium of neutrophils stimulated with N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe plus cytochalasin B, multicellular aggregates formed within 16 h, and tightly aggregated 3-D spheroids formed when the cultures were prolonged. The spheroid-inducing reaction was reversible and energy-dependent. The MCF-7 cells induced to aggregate by the neutrophil extract showed growth potential, although the growth rate of the cells was slightly reduced. The aggregation was dependent on E-cadherin, because the spheroids dispersed into isolated cells on incubation with EGTA or anti-E-cadherin antibody following pipetting. The aggregation-inducing activity in neutrophils was completely inhibited by soybean trypsin-chymotrypsin inhibitor. Moreover, the commercially available human neutrophil elastase and cathepsin G induced the aggregation of MCF-7 cells and formation of spheroids. The proteases secreted by infiltrated neutrophils in tumors are implicated in the dissemination of tumor aggregates from primary tumor sites.

Characterization of the growth-inhibitory and apoptosis-inducing activities of a triterpene saponin, securioside B against BAC1.2F5 macrophages.

BACKGROUND: Since the growth state of macrophages in local pathological sites is considered a factor that regulates the processes of many disease, such as tumors, inflammation, and atherosclerosis, the substances that regulate macrophage growth or survival may be useful for disease control. We previously reported that securiosides A and B, novel triterpene saponins, exerted macrophage-oriented cytotoxicity in the presence of a L-cell-conditioned medium containing macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), while the compounds did not exhibit an effect on macrophages in the absence of the growth-stimulating factors. AIM: This study was undertaken to characterize the growth-inhibitory and the apoptosis-inducing activities of securioside B, focusing on the effects of the macrophage-growth factor(s), and to examine the implication of a mitochondria pathway in apoptosis induction. METHODS: The effect of securioside B on a murine macrophage cell line (BAC1.2F5) was examined by MTT assay and lactose dehydrogenase release assay in the presence of L-cell-conditioned medium, M-CSF, or granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF). RESULT: Securioside B inhibited the growth of the cells stimulated by recombinant M-CSF or GM-CSF, but it scarcely induced cytolysis of the cells under the same conditions. Moreover, securioside B did not induce cell death when the compound only was added to the cells. On the other hand, the compound extensively induced apoptotic cell death in the presence of L-cell-conditioned medium, suggesting that apoptosis induction by securioside B requires the additional factor(s) present in L-cell-conditioned medium. Securioside B plus L-cell-conditioned medium induced the activation of caspase-3 and caspase-9, but not caspase-8. In addition, cytochrome c release from the mitochondria into the cytosol, and disrupted mitochondria membrane potential, was also observed in the apoptotic BAC1.2F5 cells. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that securioside B has growth-inhibitory activity against growth factor-stimulated macrophages, and that it induces apoptotic macrophage death through the activation of a mitochondrial pathway in the presence of L-cell-conditioned medium.

Enterolosaponins A and B, novel triterpene bisdesmosides from Enterolobium contortisiliquum, and evaluation for their macrophage-oriented cytotoxic activity.

Two novel triterpene bisdesmosides, designated as enterolosaponin A (1) and B (2), were isolated from Enterolobium contortisiliquum. The chemical structures of 1 and 2 were determined by analysis of their extensive spectroscopic data, as well as hydrolysis followed by chromatographic study. Enterolosaponins have a 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucosyl unit (D-glucosamine) as one of the monosaccharides constituting their oligosaccharide moieties, which have been rarely found in natural product research. Enterolosaponin A (1) exhibited a highly selective cytotoxicity against BAC1.2F5 mouse macrophages, and it should be notable that the macrophage death caused by 1 was shown to be neither necrotic nor due to induction of apoptosis from morphology of the died cells, whose cytosol occurred in vacuolation.