Isolation and Library Preparation of Planarian piRNAs.

In planarian flatworms, piRNAs and SMEDWI (Schmidtea mediterranea PIWI) proteins are both essential for the animals' impressive regenerative ability and for their survival. A knockdown of SMEDWI proteins disrupts the specification of the planarian germline and impairs stem cell differentiation, resulting in lethal phenotypes. As the molecular targets of PIWI proteins and thus their biological function are determined by PIWI-bound small RNAs, termed piRNAs (for PIWI-interacting RNAs), it is imperative to study the wealth of PIWI-bound piRNAs using next-generation sequencing-based techniques. Prior to sequencing, piRNAs bound to individual SMEDWI proteins must be isolated. To that end, we established an immunoprecipitation protocol that can be applied to all planarian SMEDWI proteins. Co-immunoprecipitated piRNAs are visualized by using qualitative radioactive 5'-end labeling, which detects even trace amounts of small RNAs. Next, isolated piRNAs are subjected to a library preparation protocol that has been optimized for the efficient capture of piRNAs, whose 3'-ends carry a 2'-O-methyl modification. Successfully prepared piRNA libraries are subjected to Illumina-based next-generation sequencing. Obtained data are analyzed as presented in the accompanying manuscript.

Genome-Wide Analysis of Planarian piRNAs.

In planarian flatworms, the piRNA pathway is operated by three PIWI proteins, termed SMEDWI-1, SMEDWI-2, and SMEDWI-3 (SMEDWI = Schmidtea mediterranea PIWI). The interplay between these three PIWI proteins and their associated small noncoding RNAs, termed piRNAs, fuels the outstanding regenerative abilities of planarians, enables tissue homeostasis, and, ultimately, ensures animal survival. As the molecular targets of PIWI proteins are determined by the sequences of their co-bound piRNAs, it is imperative to identify these sequences by next-generation sequencing applications. Following sequencing, the genomic targets and the regulatory potential of the isolated piRNA populations need to be uncovered. To that end, here we present a bioinformatics analysis pipeline for processing and systematic characterization of planarian piRNAs. The pipeline includes steps for the removal of PCR duplicates based on unique molecular identifier (UMI) sequences, and it accounts for piRNA multimapping to different loci in the genome. Importantly, our protocol also includes a fully automated pipeline that is freely available at GitHub. Together with the piRNA isolation and library preparation protocol (see accompanying chapter), the presented computational pipeline enables researchers to explore the functional role of the piRNA pathway in flatworm biology.

Enhancer RNAs stimulate Pol II pause release by harnessing multivalent interactions to NELF.

Enhancer RNAs (eRNAs) are long non-coding RNAs that originate from enhancers. Although eRNA transcription is a canonical feature of activated enhancers, the molecular features required for eRNA function and the mechanism of how eRNAs impinge on target gene transcription have not been established. Thus, using eRNA-dependent RNA polymerase II (Pol II) pause release as a model, we here investigate the requirement of sequence, structure and length of eRNAs for their ability to stimulate Pol II pause release by detaching NELF from paused Pol II. We find eRNAs not to exert their function through common structural or sequence motifs. Instead, eRNAs that exhibit a length >200 nucleotides and that contain unpaired guanosines make multiple, allosteric contacts with NELF subunits -A and -E to trigger efficient NELF release. By revealing the molecular determinants of eRNA function, our study establishes eRNAs as an important player in Pol II pause release, and it provides new insight into the regulation of metazoan transcription.

The piRNA pathway in planarian flatworms: new model, new insights.

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are small regulatory RNAs that associate with members of the PIWI clade of the Argonaute superfamily of proteins. piRNAs are predominantly found in animal gonads. There they silence transposable elements (TEs), regulate gene expression and participate in DNA methylation, thus orchestrating proper germline development. Furthermore, PIWI proteins are also indispensable for the maintenance and differentiation capabilities of pluripotent stem cells in free-living invertebrate species with regenerative potential. Thus, PIWI proteins and piRNAs seem to constitute an essential molecular feature of somatic pluripotent stem cells and the germline. In keeping with this hypothesis, both PIWI proteins and piRNAs are enriched in neoblasts, the adult stem cells of planarian flatworms, and their presence is a prerequisite for the proper regeneration and perpetual tissue homeostasis of these animals. The piRNA pathway is required to maintain the unique biology of planarians because, in analogy to the animal germline, planarian piRNAs silence TEs and ensure stable genome inheritance. Moreover, planarian piRNAs also contribute to the degradation of numerous protein-coding transcripts, a function that may be critical for neoblast differentiation. This review gives an overview of the planarian piRNA pathway and of its crucial function in neoblast biology.

N-Metallocenoylsphingosines as targeted ceramidase inhibitors: Syntheses and antitumoral effects.

Three N-metallocenoylsphingosines with variance in the central metal (Fe, Co, Ru), the charge (neutral or cationic), and the arene ligands (Cp2, Cp*Ph) were synthesized from serine and metallocene carboxylic acids as substrate-analogous inhibitors of human acid ceramidase (AC). Their inhibitory potential was examined using the recombinant full length ASAH1 enzyme, expressed and secreted from High Five insect cells, and the fluorescent substrate Rbm14-12. All complexes inhibited AC, most strongly so ruthenium(II) complex 13a. Some antitumoral effects of the complexes, such as the interference with the microtubular and F-actin cytoskeleton of cancer cells, were correlated to their AC-inhibition, whereas others, e.g. their cytotoxicity and their induction of caspase-3/-7 activity in cancer cells, were not. All complexes accumulated preferentially in the lysosomes of cancer cells like their target AC, arrested the cells in G1 phase of the cell cycle, and displayed cytotoxicity with mostly single-digit micromolar IC50 values while inducing cancer cell apoptosis.

A precisely positioned MED12 activation helix stimulates CDK8 kinase activity.

The Mediator kinase module regulates eukaryotic transcription by phosphorylating transcription-related targets and by modulating the association of Mediator and RNA polymerase II. The activity of its catalytic core, cyclin-dependent kinase 8 (CDK8), is controlled by Cyclin C and regulatory subunit MED12, with its deregulation contributing to numerous malignancies. Here, we combine in vitro biochemistry, cross-linking coupled to mass spectrometry, and in vivo studies to describe the binding location of the N-terminal segment of MED12 on the CDK8/Cyclin C complex and to gain mechanistic insights into the activation of CDK8 by MED12. Our data demonstrate that the N-terminal portion of MED12 wraps around CDK8, whereby it positions an "activation helix" close to the T-loop of CDK8 for its activation. Intriguingly, mutations in the activation helix that are frequently found in cancers do not diminish the affinity of MED12 for CDK8, yet likely alter the exact positioning of the activation helix. Furthermore, we find the transcriptome-wide gene-expression changes in human cells that result from a mutation in the MED12 activation helix to correlate with deregulated genes in breast and colon cancer. Finally, functional assays in the presence of kinase inhibitors reveal that binding of MED12 remodels the active site of CDK8 and thereby precludes the inhibition of ternary CDK8 complexes by type II kinase inhibitors. Taken together, our results not only allow us to propose a revised model of how CDK8 activity is regulated by MED12, but also offer a path forward in developing small molecules that target CDK8 in its MED12-bound form.

Efficient depletion of ribosomal RNA for RNA sequencing in planarians.

BACKGROUND: The astounding regenerative abilities of planarian flatworms prompt steadily growing interest in examining their molecular foundation. Planarian regeneration was found to require hundreds of genes and is hence a complex process. Thus, RNA interference followed by transcriptome-wide gene expression analysis by RNA-seq is a popular technique to study the impact of any particular planarian gene on regeneration. Typically, the removal of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the first step of all RNA-seq library preparation protocols. To date, rRNA removal in planarians was primarily achieved by the enrichment of polyadenylated (poly(A)) transcripts. However, to better reflect transcriptome dynamics and to cover also non-poly(A) transcripts, a procedure for the targeted removal of rRNA in planarians is needed. RESULTS: In this study, we describe a workflow for the efficient depletion of rRNA in the planarian model species S. mediterranea. Our protocol is based on subtractive hybridization using organism-specific probes. Importantly, the designed probes also deplete rRNA of other freshwater triclad families, a fact that considerably broadens the applicability of our protocol. We tested our approach on total RNA isolated from stem cells (termed neoblasts) of S. mediterranea and compared ribodepleted libraries with publicly available poly(A)-enriched ones. Overall, mRNA levels after ribodepletion were consistent with poly(A) libraries. However, ribodepleted libraries revealed higher transcript levels for transposable elements and histone mRNAs that remained underrepresented in poly(A) libraries. As neoblasts experience high transposon activity this suggests that ribodepleted libraries better reflect the transcriptional dynamics of planarian stem cells. Furthermore, the presented ribodepletion procedure was successfully expanded to the removal of ribosomal RNA from the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella typhimurium. CONCLUSIONS: The ribodepletion protocol presented here ensures the efficient rRNA removal from low input total planarian RNA, which can be further processed for RNA-seq applications. Resulting libraries contain less than 2% rRNA. Moreover, for a cost-effective and efficient removal of rRNA prior to sequencing applications our procedure might be adapted to any prokaryotic or eukaryotic species of choice.

Planarians recruit piRNAs for mRNA turnover in adult stem cells.

PIWI proteins utilize small RNAs called piRNAs to silence transposable elements, thereby protecting germline integrity. In planarian flatworms, PIWI proteins are essential for regeneration, which requires adult stem cells termed neoblasts. Here, we characterize planarian piRNAs and examine the roles of PIWI proteins in neoblast biology. We find that the planarian PIWI proteins SMEDWI-2 and SMEDWI-3 cooperate to degrade active transposons via the ping-pong cycle. Unexpectedly, we discover that SMEDWI-3 plays an additional role in planarian mRNA surveillance. While SMEDWI-3 degrades numerous neoblast mRNAs in a homotypic ping-pong cycle, it is also guided to another subset of neoblast mRNAs by antisense piRNAs and binds these without degrading them. Mechanistically, the distinct activities of SMEDWI-3 are primarily dictated by the degree of complementarity between target mRNAs and antisense piRNAs. Thus, PIWI proteins enable planarians to repurpose piRNAs for potentially critical roles in neoblast mRNA turnover.

RNA versatility governs tRNA function: Why tRNA flexibility is essential beyond the translation cycle.

tRNAs undergo multiple conformational changes during the translation cycle that are required for tRNA translocation and proper communication between the ribosome and translation factors. Recent structural data on how destabilized tRNAs utilize the CCA-adding enzyme to proofread themselves put a spotlight on tRNA flexibility beyond the translation cycle. In analogy to tRNA surveillance, this review finds that other processes also exploit versatile tRNA folding to achieve, amongst others, specific aminoacylation, translational regulation by riboswitches or a block of bacterial translation. tRNA flexibility is thereby not restricted to the hinges utilized during translation. In contrast, the flexibility of tRNA is distributed all over its L-shape and is actively exploited by the tRNA-interacting partners to discriminate one tRNA from another. Since the majority of tRNA modifications also modulate tRNA flexibility it seems that cells devote enormous resources to tightly sense and regulate tRNA structure. This is likely required for error-free protein synthesis.

An alternative RNA polymerase I structure reveals a dimer hinge.

RNA polymerase I (Pol I) is the central, 14-subunit enzyme that synthesizes the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) precursor in eukaryotic cells. The recent crystal structure of Pol I at 2.8 Šresolution revealed two novel elements: the `expander' in the active-centre cleft and the `connector' that mediates Pol I dimerization [Engel et al. (2013), Nature (London), 502, 650-655]. Here, a Pol I structure in an alternative crystal form that was solved by molecular replacement using the original atomic Pol I structure is reported. The resulting alternative structure lacks the expander but still shows an expanded active-centre cleft. The neighbouring Pol I monomers form a homodimer with a relative orientation distinct from that observed previously, establishing the connector as a hinge between Pol I monomers.

On-enzyme refolding permits small RNA and tRNA surveillance by the CCA-adding enzyme.

Transcription in eukaryotes produces a number of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). Two of these, MALAT1 and Menß, generate a tRNA-like small RNA in addition to the mature lncRNA. The stability of these tRNA-like small RNAs and bona fide tRNAs is monitored by the CCA-adding enzyme. Whereas CCA is added to stable tRNAs and tRNA-like transcripts, a second CCA repeat is added to certain unstable transcripts to initiate their degradation. Here, we characterize how these two scenarios are distinguished. Following the first CCA addition cycle, nucleotide binding to the active site triggers a clockwise screw motion, producing torque on the RNA. This ejects stable RNAs, whereas unstable RNAs are refolded while bound to the enzyme and subjected to a second CCA catalytic cycle. Intriguingly, with the CCA-adding enzyme acting as a molecular vise, the RNAs proofread themselves through differential responses to its interrogation between stable and unstable substrates.

Eukaryotic Argonautes come into focus.

Despite the fact that different classes of small RNAs are generated by largely different biogenesis pathways, all mature small RNAs associate with an Argonaute family member to form the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). Gene silencing by RISC could not be studied in molecular detail because structural information on eukaryotic Argonautes was lacking. Recently, however, the structure of human Argonaute-2 (hAgo2), a model for RISC function, was determined in complexes with heterogeneous guide RNA and in complexes with a specific miRNA. We review the exciting advances that these two structures, together with the structure of a budding yeast Argonaute, brought to the field of eukaryotic RNA interference (RNAi), and how they will enable a more detailed mechanistic understanding of eukaryotic RISC.

A triple helix stabilizes the 3' ends of long noncoding RNAs that lack poly(A) tails.

The MALAT1 (metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1) locus is misregulated in many human cancers and produces an abundant long nuclear-retained noncoding RNA. Despite being transcribed by RNA polymerase II, the 3' end of MALAT1 is produced not by canonical cleavage/polyadenylation but instead by recognition and cleavage of a tRNA-like structure by RNase P. Mature MALAT1 thus lacks a poly(A) tail yet is expressed at a level higher than many protein-coding genes in vivo. Here we show that the 3' ends of MALAT1 and the MEN ß long noncoding RNAs are protected from 3'-5' exonucleases by highly conserved triple helical structures. Surprisingly, when these structures are placed downstream from an ORF, the transcript is efficiently translated in vivo despite the lack of a poly(A) tail. The triple helix therefore also functions as a translational enhancer, and mutations in this region separate this translation activity from simple effects on RNA stability or transport. We further found that a transcript ending in a triple helix is efficiently repressed by microRNAs in vivo, arguing against a major role for the poly(A) tail in microRNA-mediated silencing. These results provide new insights into how transcripts that lack poly(A) tails are stabilized and regulated and suggest that RNA triple-helical structures likely have key regulatory functions in vivo.

The structure of human argonaute-2 in complex with miR-20a.

Argonaute proteins lie at the heart of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), wherein they use small RNA guides to recognize targets. Initial insight into the architecture of Argonautes came from studies of prokaryotic proteins, revealing a crescent-shaped base made up of the amino-terminal, PAZ, middle, and PIWI domains. The recently reported crystal structure of human Argonaute-2 (hAgo2), the "slicer" in RNA interference, in complex with a mixed population of RNAs derived from insect cells provides insight into the architecture of a eukaryotic Argonaute protein with defined biochemical and biological functions. Here, we report the structure of human Ago2 bound to a physiologically relevant microRNA, microRNA-20a, at 2.2 Å resolution. The miRNA is anchored at both ends by the Mid and PAZ domains and makes several kinks and turns along the binding groove. Interestingly, miRNA binding confers remarkable stability on hAgo2, locking this otherwise flexible enzyme into a stable conformation.

Crystallization of RNA polymerase I subcomplex A14/A43 by iterative prediction, probing and removal of flexible regions.

The removal of flexible protein regions is generally used to promote crystallization, but advanced strategies to quickly remove multiple flexible regions from proteins or protein complexes are lacking. Here, it is shown how a protein heterodimer with multiple flexibilities, the RNA polymerase I subcomplex A14/A43, could be crystallized with the use of an iterative procedure of predicting flexible regions, experimentally testing and improving these predictions and combining deletions of flexible regions in a stepwise manner. This strategy should enable the crystallization of other proteins and subcomplexes with multiple flexibilities, as required for hybrid structure solution of large macromolecular assemblies.

Site specific phosphorylation of yeast RNA polymerase I.

All nuclear RNA polymerases are phosphoprotein complexes. Yeast RNA polymerase I (Pol I) contains approximately 15 phosphate groups, distributed to 5 of the 14 subunits. Information about the function of the single phosphosites and their position in the primary, secondary and tertiary structure is lacking. We used a rapid and efficient way to purify yeast RNA Pol I to determine 13 phosphoserines and -threonines. Seven of these phosphoresidues could be located in the 3D-homology model for Pol I, five of them are more at the surface. The single phosphorylated residues were systematically mutated and the resulting strains and Pol I preparations were analyzed in cellular growth, Pol I composition, stability and genetic interaction with non-essential components of the transcription machinery. Surprisingly, all Pol I phosphorylations analyzed were found to be non-essential post-translational modifications. However, one mutation (subunit A190 S685D) led to higher growth rates in the presence of 6AU or under environmental stress conditions, and was synthetically lethal with a deletion of the Pol I subunit A12.2, suggesting a role in RNA cleavage/elongation or termination. Our results suggest that individual major or constitutively phosphorylated residues contribute to non-essential Pol I-functions.

Functional architecture of RNA polymerase I.

Synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) by RNA polymerase (Pol) I is the first step in ribosome biogenesis and a regulatory switch in eukaryotic cell growth. Here we report the 12 A cryo-electron microscopic structure for the complete 14-subunit yeast Pol I, a homology model for the core enzyme, and the crystal structure of the subcomplex A14/43. In the resulting hybrid structure of Pol I, A14/43, the clamp, and the dock domain contribute to a unique surface interacting with promoter-specific initiation factors. The Pol I-specific subunits A49 and A34.5 form a heterodimer near the enzyme funnel that acts as a built-in elongation factor and is related to the Pol II-associated factor TFIIF. In contrast to Pol II, Pol I has a strong intrinsic 3'-RNA cleavage activity, which requires the C-terminal domain of subunit A12.2 and, apparently, enables ribosomal RNA proofreading and 3'-end trimming.

The role of the N-terminal domain of chloroplast targeting peptides in organellar protein import and miss-sorting.

We have analysed 385 mitochondrial and 567 chloroplastic signal sequences of proteins found in the organellar proteomes of Arabidopsis thaliana. Despite overall similarities, the first 16 residues of transit peptides differ remarkably. To test the hypothesis that the N-terminally truncated transit peptides would redirect chloroplastic precursor proteins to mitochondria, we studied import of the N-terminal deletion mutants of ELIP, PetC and Lhcb2.1. The results show that the deletion mutants were neither imported into chloroplasts nor miss-targeted to mitochondria in vitro and in vivo, showing that the entire transit peptide is necessary for correct targeting as well as miss-sorting.

Aggregation of bead-monolayers in flat microfluidic chambers - simulation by the model of porous media.

In this paper, we for the first time simulate the process of hydrodynamic bead aggregation in a flat micro-fluidic chamber by a porous-media model in an iterative routine. This allows us to optimize the chamber design of our recently developed experimental method to form periodical monolayers from the flow of bead suspension. Periodical monolayers are advantageous for parallel assay formats since they enhance the mechanical rigidity of the aggregated pattern. This is important to avoid a spatial rearrangement along various steps of a read-out procedure which would impair the correlation between measurements. Furthermore, the monolayer formation guarantees the individual optical accessibility of all probe beads. By modelling the monolayers with porous media, we can drastically reduce the degrees of freedom in a two-phase, multi-particle problem. This way, we are able to compute stationary hydrodynamic flow patterns in the chamber. In order to simulate the complete filling process from these stationary solutions, we developed an iterative master routine which takes the transient aggregation pattern as the initial condition, then evaluates the placement of the newly introduced beads, and finally converts the points of aggregation into porous media.