ABSTRACT
Cuticular structures of insects are often microscopic and intricately complex; among the most complex structures are male genitalia. Genitalic structures are essential in taxonomic and phylogenetic studies of insects. Using well-described species from two disparate dipteran genera, we demonstrate the utility of confocal laser scanning microscopy for studying the morphological characters of fly genitalia by taking advantage of the autofluorescent properties of cuticle material. Reconstructions of confocal data sets obtained from genitalic structures embedded in two commonly used entomological mounting media (euparal and glycerin jelly) are presented. Aberration artefacts often observed in confocal data obtained from thick specimens were analysed and strategies for their minimization are discussed. Our results indicate that confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D reconstruction are excellent techniques for visualizing small, complex, autofluorescent structures in flies. These techniques could have a profound impact on the quality of information provided by 3D representations of insect structures over more traditional methods of visualization.
Subject(s)
Culex/ultrastructure , Drosophila/ultrastructure , Imaging, Three-Dimensional/methods , Insect Proteins/ultrastructure , Microscopy, Confocal/methods , Animals , Artifacts , Fluorescence , Genitalia/ultrastructure , Image Processing, Computer-Assisted , MaleABSTRACT
West Nile (WN) virus was detected in the metropolitan New York City (NYC) area during the summer and fall of 1999. Sixty-two human cases, 7 fatal, were documented. The New York State Department of Health initiated a departmental effort to implement a statewide mosquito and virus surveillance system. During the 2000 arbovirus surveillance season, we collected 317,676 mosquitoes, submitted 9,952 pools for virus testing, and detected 363 WN virus-positive pools by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Eight species of mosquitoes were found infected. Our mosquito surveillance system complemented other surveillance systems in the state to identify relative risk for human exposure to WN virus. PCR WN virus-positive mosquitoes were detected in NYC and six counties in the lower Hudson River Valley and metropolitan NYC area. Collective surveillance activities suggest that WN virus can disperse throughout the state and may impact local health jurisdictions in the state in future years.
Subject(s)
Culicidae/virology , Disease Outbreaks , Insect Vectors/virology , West Nile Fever/epidemiology , West Nile virus/isolation & purification , Animals , Culicidae/classification , DNA, Viral/analysis , Humans , Insect Vectors/classification , New York/epidemiology , New York City/epidemiology , Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods , West Nile Fever/virology , West Nile virus/genetics , West Nile virus/immunologyABSTRACT
West Nile (WN) virus was found throughout New York State in 2000, with the epicenter in New York City and surrounding counties. We tested 3,403 dead birds and 9,954 mosquito pools for WN virus during the transmission season. Sixty-three avian species, representing 30 families and 14 orders, tested positive for WN virus. The highest proportion of dead birds that tested positive for WN virus was in American Crows in the epicenter (67% positive, n=907). Eight mosquito species, representing four genera, were positive for WN virus. The minimum infection rate per 1,000 mosquitoes (MIR) was highest for Culex pipiens in the epicenter: 3.53 for the entire season and 7.49 for the peak week of August 13. Staten Island had the highest MIR (11.42 for Cx. pipiens), which was associated with the highest proportion of dead American Crows that tested positive for WN virus (92%, n=48) and the highest number of human cases (n=10).
Subject(s)
Bird Diseases/virology , Birds/virology , Culicidae/virology , Disease Reservoirs/veterinary , Insect Vectors/virology , West Nile Fever/veterinary , West Nile virus/isolation & purification , Aedes/virology , Animals , Anopheles/virology , Bird Diseases/mortality , Birds/classification , Culex/virology , Humans , New York/epidemiology , Songbirds/classification , Songbirds/virology , West Nile Fever/epidemiology , West Nile Fever/virology , West Nile virus/geneticsABSTRACT
West Nile (WN) virus was identified in the Western Hemisphere in 1999. Along with human encephalitis cases, 20 equine cases of WN virus were detected in 1999 and 23 equine cases in 2000 in New York. During both years, the equine cases occurred after human cases in New York had been identified.
Subject(s)
Disease Outbreaks , Horse Diseases/epidemiology , West Nile Fever/veterinary , West Nile virus/isolation & purification , Aedes/virology , Animals , Antibodies, Viral/analysis , Culex/virology , Horse Diseases/pathology , Horse Diseases/physiopathology , Horse Diseases/virology , Horses , Humans , New York/epidemiology , RNA, Viral/analysis , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction , West Nile Fever/epidemiology , West Nile Fever/pathology , West Nile Fever/physiopathology , West Nile virus/genetics , West Nile virus/immunologyABSTRACT
West Nile (WN) virus transmission in the United States during 2000 was most intense on Staten Island, New York, where 10 neurologic illnesses among humans and 2 among horses occurred. WN virus was isolated from Aedes vexans, Culex pipiens, Cx. salinarius, Ochlerotatus triseriatus, and Psorophora ferox, and WN viral RNA was detected in Anopheles punctipennis. An elevated weekly minimum infection rate (MIR) for Cx. pipiens and increased dead bird density were present for 2 weeks before the first human illness occurred. Increasing mosquito MIRs and dead bird densities in an area may be indicators of an increasing risk for human infections. A transmission model is proposed involving Cx. pipiens and Cx. restuans as the primary enzootic and epizootic vectors among birds, Cx. salinarius as the primary bridge vector for humans, and Aedes/Ochlerotatus spp. as bridge vectors for equine infection.
