Analysis of variation in calibration curves for Kodak XV radiographic film using model-based parameters.

Film calibration is time-consuming work when dose accuracy is essential while working in a range of photon scatter environments. This study uses the single-target single-hit model of film response to fit the calibration curves as a function of calibration method, processor condition, field size and depth. Kodak XV film was irradiated perpendicular to the beam axis in a solid water phantom. Standard calibration films (one dose point per film) were irradiated at 90 cm source-to-surface distance (SSD) for various doses (16-128 cGy), depths (0.2, 0.5, 1.5, 5, 10 cm) and field sizes (5 × 5, 10 × 10 and 20 × 20 cm²). The 8-field calibration method (eight dose points per film) was used as a reference for each experiment, taken at 95 cm SSD and 5 cm depth. The delivered doses were measured using an Attix parallel plate chamber for improved accuracy of dose estimation in the buildup region. Three fitting methods with one to three dose points per calibration curve were investigated for the field sizes of 5 × 5, 10 × 10 and 20 × 20 cm². The inter-day variation of model parameters (background, saturation and slope) were 1.8%, 5.7%, and 7.7% (1 σ) using the 8-field method. The saturation parameter ratio of standard to 8-field curves was 1.083 ± 0.005. The slope parameter ratio of standard to 8-field curves ranged from 0.99 to 1.05, depending on field size and depth. The slope parameter ratio decreases with increasing depth below 0.5 cm for the three field sizes. It increases with increasing depths above 0.5 cm. A calibration curve with one to three dose points fitted with the model is possible with 2% accuracy in film dosimetry for various irradiation conditions. The proposed fitting methods may reduce workload while providing energy dependence correction in radiographic film dosimetry. This study is limited to radiographic XV film with a Lumisys scanner.

Dose discrepancies in the buildup region and their impact on dose calculations for IMRT fields.

PURPOSE: Dose accuracy in the buildup region for radiotherapy treatment planning suffers from challenges in both measurement and calculation. This study investigates the dosimetry in the buildup region at normal and oblique incidences for open and IMRT fields and assesses the quality of the treatment planning calculations. METHODS: This study was divided into three parts. First, percent depth doses and profiles (for 5 x 5, 10 x 10, 20 x 20, and 30 x 30 cm2 field sizes at 0 degrees, 45 degrees, and 70 degrees incidences) were measured in the buildup region in Solid Water using an Attix parallel plate chamber and Kodak XV film, respectively. Second, the parameters in the empirical contamination (EC) term of the convolution/ superposition (CVSP) calculation algorithm were fitted based on open field measurements. Finally, seven segmental head-and-neck IMRT fields were measured on a flat phantom geometry and compared to calculations using gamma and dose-gradient compensation (C) indices to evaluate the impact of residual discrepancies and to assess the adequacy of the contamination term for IMRT fields. RESULTS: Local deviations between measurements and calculations for open fields were within 1% and 4% in the buildup region for normal and oblique incidences, respectively. The C index with 5%/1 mm criteria for IMRT fields ranged from 89% to 99% and from 96% to 98% at 2 mm and 10 cm depths, respectively. The quality of agreement in the buildup region for open and IMRT fields is comparable to that in nonbuildup regions. CONCLUSIONS: The added EC term in CVSP was determined to be adequate for both open and IMRT fields. Due to the dependence of calculation accuracy on (1) EC modeling, (2) internal convolution and density grid sizes, (3) implementation details in the algorithm, and (4) the accuracy of measurements used for treatment planning system commissioning, the authors recommend an evaluation of the accuracy of near-surface dose calculations as a part of treatment planning commissioning.

Radiographic film dosimetry for IMRT fields in the nearsurface buildup region.

Radiographic film dosimetry provides fast, convenient 2-D dose distributions, but is challenged by the dependence of film response on scatter conditions (i.e., energy dependence). Verification of delivered dose in the surface buildup region is important for intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) when volumes of interest encroach on these regions (e.g., head/neck, breast). The current work demonstrates that film dosimetry can accurately predict the dose in the buildup region for IMRT, since 1) film dosimetry can be performed with sufficient accuracy for small fields and 2) IMRT is delivered by a series of "small" segments (step and shoot IMRT). This work evaluates the accuracy of X-OMAT V (XV) and Extended Dose Range (EDR) film for measurements from 2 mm to 15 mm depths for small fields and clinical IMRT beams. Film measurements have been compared to single point measurements made with a stereotactic diode and parallel plate ionization chamber (P11) and thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) at various depths for square (diode, P11) and IMRT (diode, TLD) fields. Film calibration was performed using an 8-field step exposure on a single film at 5 cm depth, which has been corrected to represent either small field or large field depth dependent film calibration techniques. Up to 10% correction for film response variation as a function of depth was required for measurements in the buildup region. A depth-dependent calibration can sufficiently improve the accuracy for IMRT calculation verification (i.e., < or = 5% uncertainty). A small field film calibration technique was most appropriate for IMRT field measurements. Improved buildup region dose measurements for clinical IMRT fields promotes improved dose estimation performance for (inverse) treatment planning and allows more quantitative treatment delivery validation.

Comparison of helical tomotherapy versus conventional radiation to deliver craniospinal radiation.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether helical tomotherapy would better dose-limit growing vertebral ring apophyses during craniospinal radiation as compared to conventional techniques. Four pediatric patients with M0 medulloblastoma received tomotherapy craniospinal radiation (23.4 Gy, 1.8 Gy/fx) by continuous helical delivery of 6 MV photons. Weekly blood counts were monitored. For comparison, conventional craniospinal radiation plans were generated. To assist in tomotherapy planning, a cross-sectional growth study of 52 children and young adults was completed to evaluate spine growth and maturation. Vertebral ring apophyses first fused along the posterolateral body-pedicle synostosis, proceeding circumferentially toward the anterior vertebral body such that the cervical and lumbar vertebrae fused early and mid-thoracic vertebrae fused late. For the four pediatric patients, tomotherapy resulted between 2% and 14% vertebral volume exceeding 23 Gy. Conventional craniospinal radiation predicted between 33% and 44% exceeding 23 Gy. Cumulative body radiation doses exceeding 4 Gy were between 50% and 57% for tomotherapy and between 25% and 37% for conventional craniospinal radiation. Tomotherapy radiation reduced neutrophil, platelet, and erythrocyte hemoglobin levels during treatment. Tomotherapy provides improved dose avoidance to growing vertebrae as compared to conventional craniospinal radiation. However, the long-term effects of tomotherapy dose avoidance on spine growth and large volume low dose radiation in children are not yet known.

Tomotherapy for prostate adenocarcinoma: a report on acute toxicity.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: To analyze the impact of Tomotherapy (TOMO) intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) on acute gastrointestinal (GI) and genitourinary (GU) toxicity in prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The records of 55 consecutively treated TOMO patients were reviewed. Additionally a well-matched group of 43 patients treated with LINAC-based step and shoot IMRT (LINAC) was identified. Acute toxicity was scored according to Radiation Therapy Oncology Group acute toxicity criterion. RESULTS: The grade 2-3 acute GU toxicity rates for the TOMO vs. LINAC groups were 51% vs. 28% (p=0.001). Acute grade 2 GI toxicity was 25% vs. 40% (p=0.024), with no grade 3 GI toxicity in either group. In univariate analysis, androgen deprivation, prostate volume, pre-treatment urinary toxicity, and prostate dose homogeneity correlated with acute GI and GU toxicity. With multivariate analysis use of Tomotherapy, median bladder dose and bladder dose homogeneity remained significantly correlated with GU toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: Acute GI toxicity for prostate cancer is improved with Tomotherapy at a cost of increased acute GU toxicity possibly due to differences in bladder and prostate dose distribution.

Accuracy of rapid radiographic film calibration for intensity-modulated radiation therapy verification.

A single calibration film method was evaluated for use with intensity-modulated radiation therapy film quality assurance measurements. The single-film method has the potential advantages of exposure simplicity, less media consumption, and improved processor quality control. Potential disadvantages include cross contamination of film exposure, implementation effort to document delivered dose, and added complication of film response analysis. Film response differences were measured between standard and single-film calibration methods. Additional measurements were performed to help trace causes for the observed discrepancies. Kodak X-OmatV (XV) film was found to have greater response variability than extended dose range (EDR) film. We found it advisable for XV film to relate the film response calibration for the single-film method to a user-defined optimal calibration geometry. Using a single calibration film exposed at the time of experiment, the total uncertainty of film response was estimated to be <2% (1%) for XV (EDR) film at 50 (100) cGy and higher, respectively.