The impact of cryopreservation on the morphology of spermatozoa in men with oligoasthenoteratozoospermia.

The cryopreservation of ejaculate can reduce the viability, motility, and morphological characteristics of the spermatozoa of infertile men. Oligoasthenoteratozoospermia (OAT) is the most common cause of male subfertility. The aim of this study was to evaluate the morphological characteristics and viability of progressive motile sperm fraction before and after cryopreservation, and to determine whether cryopreservation of progressive motile sperm fraction is effective in eliminating morphologically abnormal sperm in men with OAT. An increased proportion of spermatozoa with normal morphology in fresh progressive motile sperm fraction compared with fresh ejaculate has been observed. After cryopreservation, the motility was 65.5 ± 8.8%; the proportion of spermatozoa with normal morphology increased non-significantly compared with freshly prepared motile sperm fraction (35.6 ± 5.5%). Concurrently, the proportion of cryopreserved spermatozoa with head defects increased significantly by 1.7 times (to 38.4 ± 4.7%) and the proportion of almost all morphologically abnormal sperm cells, particularly spermatozoa with multiple abnormalities, was reduced significantly. These data appear to be a novel finding in the context of patients with OAT. Using such spermatozoa for in vitro fertilization leads to a significant decrease in both a number of embryos at the cleavage stage and the blastocysts formation rate. High-magnification sperm morphology examination and selection, IMSI, post-cryopreservation significantly increased the likelihood of successful oocyte fertilization and subsequent embryo development.

Development of a modified vitrification strategy suitable for subsequent scale-up for hepatocyte preservation.

This work explores the design of a vitrification solution (VS) for scaled-up cryopreservation of hepatocytes, by adapting VS(basic) (40% (v/v) ethylene glycol 0.6M sucrose, i.e. 7.17 M ethylene glycol 0.6M sucrose), previously proven effective in vitrifying bioengineered constructs and stem cells. The initial section of the scale-up study involved the selection of non-penetrating additives to supplement VS(basic) and increase the solution's total solute concentration. This involved a systematic approach with a step-by-step elimination of non-penetrating cryoprotectants, based on their effect on cells after long/short term exposures to high/low concentrations of the additives alone or in combinations, on the attachment ability of hepatocytes after exposure. At a second stage, hepatocyte suspension was vitrified and functions were assessed after continuous culture up to 5 days. Results indicated Ficoll as the least toxic additive. Within 60 min, the exposure of hepatocytes to a solution composed of 9% Ficoll+0.6M sucrose (10⁻³ M Ficoll+0.6 M sucrose) sustained attachment efficiency of 95%, similar to control. Furthermore, this additive did not cause any detriment to the attachment of these cells when supplementing the base vitrification solution VS(basic). The addition of 9% Ficoll, raised the total solute concentration to 74.06% (w/v) with a negligible 10⁻³ M increase in molarity of the solution. This suggests main factor in inducing detriment to cells was the molar contribution of the additive. Vitrification protocol for scale-up condition sustained hepatocyte suspension attachment efficiency and albumin production. We conclude that although established approach will permit scaling-up of vitrification of hepatocyte suspension, vitrification of hepatocytes which are attached prior to vitrification is more effective by comparison.

Influence of cell culture configuration on the post-cryopreservation viability of primary rat hepatocytes.

Cryopreservation has been identified as a necessary barrier to overcome in the production of tissue engineered products for clinical application. Liver engineering and bioartificial liver assisting devices are on the forefront of tissue engineering research due to its high demand and clinical potential. In this study we propose that the cryopreservation of primary mammalian hepatocytes yields better results when these cells are in a tissue-like culture configuration since cell attachment is essential for cell survival in this cell type. We used two different tissue-engineered culture configurations: monolayers and spheroid culture; and two different concepts of cryopreservation, namely vitrification and freezing. Cell suspensions were also cryopreserved using both approaches and results were compared to the engineered cultures. Both engineered configurations and suspension were cryopreserved using both conventional freezing (cooling at 1 °C/minute using 10% DMSO in foetal calf serum) and vitrification (using 40% ethylene glycol 0.6 m sucrose supplemented with 9% Ficoll). These two approaches differ on the degree of mechanical stress they inflict on the material to be cryopreserved. The maintenance of cell-to-cell and the integrity of the actin cytoskeleton were assessed using scanning electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry respectively. Results showed that while there was no significant difference between the degree of integrity shown between vitrified and control engineered cultures, the same did not happen to the frozen engineered constructs. The disruption of the cytoskeletal structure correlated with increased levels of apoptotic markers. With cryopreserved suspensions there was evidence of disruption of the cytoskeletal structure. This study concluded that cell-to-cell contact is beneficial in the maintenance of viability post-cryopreservation and that the vitrification approach was far superior to those of conventional freezing when applied to 2D and 3D hepatocyte based engineered cultures.

Cryopreservation of mouse testicular tissue: prospect for harvesting spermatogonial stem cells for fertility preservation.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the efficacy of vitrification, rapid freezing, and slow freezing in preserving testicular tissue for subsequent isolation of spermatogonial stem cells. DESIGN: Experimental study. SETTING: University-based laboratory. ANIMALS: Immature mouse testicular tissue. INTERVENTION(S): The tunica of the testis was manipulated before cryopreservation. The tunica was either breached with a fine needle or completely removed, or the testis was sectioned longitudinally into halves. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Cell viability by Trypan blue exclusion test and flow cytometry analysis of live-dead cytotoxicity test, measurement of hormonal production, enrichment of spermatogonial stem cells with use of magnetic-activated cell sorting technology. RESULT(S): Samples with tunica minimally penetrated with a needle point gave the highest cell viability after freezing and thawing. Vitrification protocol with use of an ethylene glycol-sucrose-based vitrification solution (40% vol/vol ethylene glycol-0.6 mol/L sucrose) was able to maintain postwarming cell viability and functions similar to those of noncryopreserved controls and significantly better than both conventional slow and rapid freezing protocols. Primitive spermatogonial stem cells were enriched successfully from vitrified tissue via magnetic-activated cell sorting. CONCLUSION(S): Vitrification of testicular tissue is a time- and cost-efficient strategy to preserve spermatogonial stem cells for potential transplantation procedure.

The use of vitrification to preserve primary rat hepatocyte monolayer on collagen-coated poly(ethylene-terephthalate) surfaces for a hybrid liver support system.

We developed a scaled-up procedure for vitrifying hepatocytes for hybrid liver support system applications. Hepatocyte monolayer cultured on collagen-coated polyethylene terephthalate (PET) discs constituted the basic module for a hybrid liver support system. Freshly isolated rat hepatocytes were seeded on collagen-coated PET discs with a diameter of 33 mm at a density of 5x10(6) cells per disc, and were cultured for 24 h before cryopreservation. The total duration of procedure starting from exposure to low concentrations of cryoprotectants up to cryostorage is 10 min. Vitrification of the modules was achieved by using two vitrification solutions sequentially with first vitrification solution containing two cryoprotectants, ethylene glycol (EG) and sucrose, while second vitrification solution contained additionally polymer, Ficoll. Direct exposure to liquid nitrogen vapours was followed by immersion into liquid nitrogen. Recovery procedure for vitrified modules included their warming in 1m sucrose at temperature of 38-39 degrees C followed by subsequently washing in sucrose-based solutions of decreased concentration within 15 min at room temperature. Viability, structural characteristics, and functions of cells were preserved by vitrification. Hepatocytes in the post-vitrified and warmed monolayer maintained differentiated hepatocyte characteristics both structurally and functionally. In average, protein synthesis measured as albumin production was 181.00+/-33.46 ng/million cells and 166.10+/-28.11 ng/million cells, for control and vitrified modules respectively. Urea production was, in average, 1.52+/-0.40 ng/million cells and 1.36+/-0.31 ng/million cells for a 7 day culture respectively, with no significant statistical difference between the control and vitrified modules.

Vitreous cryopreservation of nanofibrous tissue-engineered constructs generated using mesenchymal stromal cells.

Development of an effective preservation strategy to fulfill off-the-shelf availability of tissue-engineered constructs (TECs) is demanded for realizing their clinical potential. In this study, the feasibility of vitrification, ice-free cryopreservation, for precultured ready-to-use TECs was evaluated. To prepare the TECs, bone marrow-derived porcine mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) were seeded in polycaprolactone-gelatin nanofibrous scaffolds and cultured for 3 weeks before vitrification treatment. The vitrification strategy developed, which involved exposure of the TECs to low concentrations of cryoprotectants followed by a vitrification solution and sterile packaging in a pouch with its subsequent immersion directly into liquid nitrogen, was accomplished within 11min. Stepwise removal of cryoprotectants, after warming in a 38 degrees C water bath, enabled rapid restoration of the TECs. Vitrification did not impair microstructure of the scaffold or cell viability. No significant differences were found between the vitrified and control TECs in cellular metabolic activity and proliferation on matched days and in the trends during 5 weeks of continuous culture postvitrification. Osteogenic differentiation ability in vitrified and control groups was similar. In conclusion, we have developed a time- and cost-efficient cryopreservation method that maintains integrity of the TECs while preserving MSCs viability and metabolic activity, and their ability to differentiate.

Cryopreservation of alginate-fibrin beads involving bone marrow derived mesenchymal stromal cells by vitrification.

Application of cell--biomaterial systems in regenerative medicine can be facilitated by their successful low temperature preservation. Vitrification, which avoids ice crystal formation by amorphous solidification, is an emerging approach to cryopreservation. Developing vitrification strategy, effective cryopreservation of alginate-fibrin beads with porcine mesenchymal stromal cells has been achieved in this study. The cell-biomaterial constructs were pre-cultured for 20 days before cryopreservation, allowing for cell proliferation and construct stabilization. Ethylene glycol (EG) was employed as the basic cryoprotectant for two equilibration solutions. Successful cryopreservation of the constructs was achieved using vitrification solution composed of penetrating (EG MW 62 Da) and non-penetrating (sucrose MW 342 Da) cryoprotectants. Stepwise procedure of introduction to and removal of cryoprotectants was brief; direct plunging into liquid nitrogen was applied. Cell viability, evaluated by combining live/death staining and confocal laser microscopy, was similar for both control and vitrified cells in the beads. No detectable damage of microstructure of cryopreserved beads was found as shown by scanning electron microscopy. Both osteogenically induced control and vitrified cells in the constructs were equally capable of mineral production and deposition. There was no statistically significant difference in metabolic activity and proliferation between both groups during the entire culture period. Our study leads to the conclusion that the developed cryopreservation protocol allowed to maintain the integrity of the beads while preserving the ability of the pig bone marrow derived mesenchymal stromal cells to proliferate and subsequently differentiate; demonstrating that vitrification is a promising approach for cryopreservation of "ready-to-use" cell-biomaterial constructs.

Identification and characterization of a novel prespheroid 3-dimensional hepatocyte monolayer on galactosylated substratum.

Three-dimensional (3D) hepatocyte spheroids mimicking the structural and functional characteristics of hepatocytes in vivo were self-assembled onto a galactosylated polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substratum, and the dynamic process of spheroid formation was investigated using time-lapse confocal microscopy. Hepatocytes cultured on this galactosylated substratum formed small cell-aggregates within 12 h, which gradually merged into "island-like" clusters at approximately 1 day and spread to form prespheroid monolayer within 2 days; the prespheroid monolayer was stretched to fold into compact and larger 3D spheroids after 3 days. We compared the expressions of F-actin (cytoskeleton), phosphorylated focal adhesion kinase (p-FAK, cell-substratum interactions) and E-cadherin (cell-cell interactions) during the dynamic process of 3D hepatocyte spheroid formation with the dynamic process of 2D hepatocyte monolayer formation on collagen substratum. Hepatocytes in the prespheroid monolayer stage exhibited the strongest cell-substratum interactions of all 4 stages during spheroid formation with cell-cell interactions and F-actin distribution comparable with those of the 3D hepatocyte spheroids. The prespheroid monolayer also exhibited better hepatocyte polarity (multidrug resistance protein 2) and tight junction (zonula occludens-1) formation, more-differentiated hepatocyte functions (albumin production and cytochrome P450 1 A activity), and higher sensitivity to hepatotoxicity than the conventional 2D hepatocyte monolayer. The transient prespheroid 3D monolayer could be stabilized on a hybrid glycine-arginine-glycine-aspartic acid-serine (GRGDS)/galactose-PET substratum for up to 1 week and destabilized to form 3D spheroids in excess soluble GRGDS peptide.

Vitreous cryopreservation of cell-biomaterial constructs involving encapsulated hepatocytes.

We put forward a new strategy for cryopreservation, namely vitrification or ice-free preservation, of cell-biomaterial constructs for tissue-engineering applications. In this study, for a period of 6 days, we tested vitrified and control hepatocytes entrapped at 2 different cell densities (1.5 x 10(6) and 5 x 10(6) cells/mL) in 2 types of engineered collagen matrices (M- and G-collagen) as models to evaluate efficacy and universality of the developed vitrification method. The nature of collagens caused differences in capsule sizes (100-200 microm versus 350-450 microm). The developed method included rapid step-wise introduction of microencapsulated hepatocytes to vitrification solution (40v/v% ethylene glycol 0.6 M sucrose in medium) and their direct immersion in liquid nitrogen. Vitrification did not affect viability and functions of the microencapsulated hepatocytes, which exhibited trends similar to those of untreated controls in the decline of their functions and the rate of cell death during continuous culture, irrespective of physical and chemical properties of the biomaterial and cell density. For control and vitrification, the percentage of live cells varied from 80.3% +/- 0.9% to 82.3% +/- 1.4% in capsules formed by M-collagen, from 82.8% +/- 1.1% to 85.0% +/- 3.3% in capsules formed by G-collagen with cells entrapped at low density, and from 84.4% +/- 1.3% to 86.8% +/- 0.6% in capsules formed by G-collagen with cells entrapped at high density (p > 0.05). Within the same day, the maximum relative change in cell viability and functions between control and vitrification was 4% and 16%, respectively. The developed vitrification approach, which is an alternative to freezing, can be applied to other tissue-engineered constructs with comparable sizes, various cell numbers, and various properties of the biomaterials involved.

Optimization of cryopreservation of stem cells cultured as neurospheres: comparison between vitrification, slow-cooling and rapid cooling freezing protocols.

We compared cryopreservation of mammalian neural stem cells (NSCs) cultured as neurospheres by slow-cooling (1 C/min) in 10% (v/v) DMSO and cryopreservation by immersion into liquid nitrogen in ethylene glycol (EG)-sucrose solutions that support vitrification (40% (v/v) EG, 0.6 M sucrose) or that do not (37% v/v) EG, 0.6 M sucrose and 30% (v/v) EG, 0.6 M sucrose); the concentration of penetrating cryoprotectant in the last two solutions was lowered with the intention to reduce their toxicity towards NSCs. To protect against contamination a straw-in-straw technique was employed. Vitrification offered the best combination of preservation of structural integrity of neurospheres, cell viability (>96%), multipotency and karyotype. Rapid cooling in 37% (v/v) EG, 0.6 M sucrose afforded good viability but did not preserve structural integrity. Rapid cooling in 30% (v/v) EG, 0.6 M sucrose additionally reduced cell viability to 77%. Slow-cooling reduced cell viability to 65% and damaged the neurospheres. This study suggests that, in contrast to freezing, vitrification has immense potential for the cryopreservation of stem cells cultured as neurospheres or in other structured cultures.

The cryopreservation of human embryonic stem cells.

hES (human embryonic stem) cells hold tremendous potential in the newly emerging field of regenerative medicine, in addition to being a useful tool in basic scientific research and for pharmacological and cytotoxicity screening. However, an essential prerequisite for the future widespread application of hES cells are the development of efficient cryopreservation protocols to facilitate their storage and transportation. This review summarizes the current state of progress in the field of hES cell cryopreservation, by critically examining and comparing the various cryopreservation protocols that have been developed. These can be classified into two categories: (1) conventional slow-cooling protocols and (2) vitrification protocols. Previously, the application of slow-cooling cryopreservation protocols to freely-suspended hES cell clumps yielded extremely dismal results. However, a recent study demonstrated that post-thaw survivability was markedly improved when slow-cooling protocols were applied instead to adherent hES colonies. Vitrification protocols have been shown to be much better than the standard slow-cooling protocol for the cryopreservation of freely suspended hES cell clumps. However, no study has yet attempted to apply vitrification protocols to adherent hES colonies. It must be noted that vitrification protocols are extremely labour-intensive and tedious to perform manually. Additionally, the use of cryostraws in vitrification protocols is unsuited for handling bulk quantities of hES cells, in addition to posing serious technical difficulties in developing machine automation for cryopreservation. These are some of the major challenges that have to be overcome if further progress is to be made in this field.

Vitrification can be more favorable than slow cooling.

OBJECTIVE: Cryopreservation of embryos and oocytes has become an essential service for infertility treatment. The clinical application of this technology should ensure optimal survival of the embryos and oocytes that are stored and subsequently thawed for transfer. The aim of this review is to compare the widely employed slow cooling procedures with vitrification to evaluate and recommend the more effective and safer procedure. DESIGN: The review is mainly based on a comparison of the principles, procedures, and results reported in the literature. A historical description of vitrification and personal experiences with this technology are also included. SETTING: University-based hospitals and private clinics that treat infertility and have published information on cryopreservation. PATIENT(S): Women being treated for infertility and reproductive technology clinics. INTERVENTION(S): The application of slow cooling involving a range of cooling rates is compared with vitrification using rapid and ultrarapid cooling in simple containers. The purpose of both techniques is the induction of a glasslike state in cells to protect them from damage by ice crystals. The early development of vitrification involved the use of long pre-equilibration procedures. Improved methods resulted from the use of mixtures of penetrating and nonpenetrating solutes that are not toxic and a range of cooling rates. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Reported number of pregnancies established after transfer of embryos that were cryopreserved by vitrification, or transfer of embryos derived from vitrified oocytes. RESULT(S): Both slow cooling and vitrification procedures have resulted in the successful cryopreservation of human embryos and oocytes. Both procedures have resulted in healthy births, although the slow cooling of oocytes gives very low success rates. Vitrification is a promising novel technique in assisted reproductive technology, but comparative success rates are yet to be established. CONCLUSION(S): Vitrification is a simple procedure that requires less time and is likely to become safer and more cost effective than slow cooling.