Production of prostaglandins, isoprostanes and thromboxane by Aspergillus fumigatus: identification by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and quantification by enzyme immunoassay.

Aspergillus fumigatus has been reported to produce prostaglandin (PG)-like substances. The molecular structure of these fungal eicosanoids is however still unknown. By using the gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) methodology we identified a number of eicosanoids that were formed upon incubation of the precursor arachidonic acid ethyl ester (AAE, 10 µM) with three strains of A. fumigatus. The eicosanoids identified include the prostaglandins (PG) PGE(2), 6-keto-PGF(1α) (the stable hydrolysis product of prostacyclin PGI(2)) and PGF(2α), the isoprostanes 15(S)-8-iso-PGF(2α) and 15(S)-8-iso-PGE(2), and thromboxane B(2) (TxB(2), the stable hydrolysis product of TxA(2)). These eicosanoids are identical with those produced by cyclooxygenases (COX) in humans. The biosynthesis of all of these eicosanoids could not be inhibited by the human COX inhibitors indomethacin (100 µM), acetylsalicylic acid (100 µM) or the non-selective human lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitor nordihydroguaiaretic acid (100 µM). By contrast, the selen-containing antioxidant ebselen (100 µM) was found to inhibit their synthesis. Our results suggest that mammals and fungi employ different eicosanoid biosynthesis pathways. As some of the detected eicosanoids are potent immunomodulators and bronchoconstrictors, they could play a possible role in pulmonary diseases associated with A. fumigatus infection.

Gliotoxin as putative virulence factor and immunotherapeutic target in a cell culture model of cerebral aspergillosis.

The mycotoxin gliotoxin is an important metabolite produced by Aspergillus fumigatus, but its precise role in the pathogenesis of cerebral aspergillosis is not yet determined. We could demonstrate that growth in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) induced the production and secretion of significant amounts of gliotoxin by A. fumigatus. These concentrations of 590-720nM were sufficient to reduce the viability of astrocytes and neurons, as well as of primary microglia, already after few hours of incubation. Annexin staining and electron microscopy revealed the induction of apoptosis rather than necrosis as the relevant mode of gliotoxin action in the brain. Furthermore, even a low gliotoxin concentration of 100nM, which was subtoxic for astrocytes, was able to significantly down-modulate the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. In order to improve the current antimycotic therapy of cerebral aspergillosis by supporting innate immunity in the fight against Aspergillus, we aimed to neutralize the toxic potency of gliotoxin towards different brain cell types. Compounds such as dithiothreitol (DTT) or glutathione that reduce the internal disulfide bond of gliotoxin were shown here to be able to interfere with the gliotoxin-induced decrease of cell viability and to save the cells from induction of apoptosis. Thus, exploration of these substances may lead to novel approaches for adjunctive treatment of cerebral aspergillosis.

Characterization and identification of proteases secreted by Aspergillus fumigatus using free flow electrophoresis and MS.

Early diagnosis of life-threatening invasive aspergillosis in neutropenic patients remains challenging because current laboratory methods have limited diagnostic sensitivity and/or specificity. Aspergillus species are known to secrete various pathogenetically relevant proteases and the monitoring of their protease activity in serum specimens might serve as a new diagnostic approach.For the characterization and identification of secreted proteases, the culture supernatant of Aspergillus fumigatus was fractionated using free flow electrophoresis (Becton Dickinson). Protease activity of separated fractions was measured using fluorescently labeled reporter peptides. Fractions were also co-incubated in parallel with various protease inhibitors that specifically inhibit a distinct class of proteases e.g. metallo- or cysteine-proteases. Those fractions with high protease activity were further subjected to LC-MS/MS analysis for protease identification. The highest protease activity was measured in fractions with an acidic pH range. The results of the 'inhibitor-panel' gave a clear indication that it is mainly metallo- and serine-proteases that are involved in the degradation of reporter peptides. Furthermore, several proteases were identified that facilitate the optimization of reporter peptides for functional protease profiling as a diagnostic tool for invasive aspergillosis.

Gliotoxin in Aspergillus fumigatus: an example that mycotoxins are potential virulence factors.

Moulds produce several different mycotoxins that may improve their chance of survival in particular environments. For example, Aspergillus fumigatus, an important human pathogen, produces several mycotoxins including gliotoxin. This secondary metabolite, a small lipid soluble dipeptide, exerts toxic effects on phagocytic cells and T-lymphocytes at low concentrations in vitro. A. fumigatus also produces high levels of gliotoxin in vivo, and this suggests that host defense mechanisms might be impaired by this metabolite during host infection. In the past few years, the genes responsible for the production of gliotoxin in A. fumigatus have been identified and more recently gliotoxin-minus mutants have been used in animal experiments to ascertain the biological role of this product. Mycotoxins have also been shown to act as virulence factors in some fungal infections of insects and plants.

Gliotoxin production by clinical and environmental Aspergillus fumigatus strains.

The mycotoxin gliotoxin is produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus, including the important human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus. Gliotoxin exerts a broad spectrum of immunosuppressive effects in vitro and is detectable in the sera of patients suffering from invasive aspergillosis. In order to correlate the pathogenic potential of A. fumigatus with the ability to produce gliotoxin and to investigate the taxonomic distribution of gliotoxin-producing Aspergillus strains among clinical isolates, a total of 158 Aspergillus isolates comprising four different species (A. fumigatus, n=100; A. terreus, n=27; A. niger, n=16; A. flavus, n=15) were collected from different medical centers (some originating from probable cases of aspergillosis) and from environmental samples in Germany and Austria. Remarkably, gliotoxin was detected in most culture filtrates of A. fumigatus of both clinical (98%) and environmental (96%) origin. The toxin was also detected, with decreasing frequency, in culture filtrates of A. niger (56%), A. terreus (37%), and A. flavus (13%). The highest gliotoxin concentrations were detected in A. fumigatus strains of clinical (max. 21.35 microg/ml, mean 5.75 microg/ml) and environmental (max. 26.25 microg/ml, mean 5.27 microg/ml) origin. Gliotoxin productivity of other Aspergillus species was significantly lower. Culture supernatants of A. fumigatus strains lacking gliotoxin production showed a significantly lower cytotoxicity on macrophage-like cells and T-cells in vitro. In contrast, lack of gliotoxin production in the other Aspergillus species tested had no significant influence on the cytotoxic effect of culture supernatant on these immune cells.

Systematic identification of substrates for profiling of secreted proteases from Aspergillus species.

Reliable and early diagnosis of life-threatening invasive mycoses in neutropenic patients caused by fungi of the Aspergillus species remains challenging because current clinical diagnostic tools lack in sensitivity and/or specificity. During invasive growth a variety of fungal proteases are secreted into the bloodstream and protease profiling with reporter peptides might improve diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in serum specimens. To characterise the specific protease activity of Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus niger we analyzed Aspergillus culture supernatants, human serum and the mixture of both. A systematic screening for optimised protease substrates was performed using a random peptide library consisting of 360 synthetic peptides featuring fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). We could identify numerous peptides that are selectively cleaved by fungus-specific proteases. These reporter peptides might be feasible for future protease profiling of serum specimens to improve diagnosis and monitoring of invasive aspergillosis.

Candida species fail to produce the immunosuppressive secondary metabolite gliotoxin in vitro.

Yeasts of the genus Candida are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients. Despite new insights in recent years, the pathogenesis of Candida infection is still incompletely understood. Previous studies have suggested that gliotoxin, a secondary fungal metabolite with well-known immunosuppressive effects, is produced by various species of the genus Candida, and a possible role of gliotoxin as a virulence factor of C. albicans has also been discussed. However, until now, no definitive evidence has been provided that members of the genus Candida are able to produce gliotoxin. To clarify this question, we tested a total of 100 clinical isolates of C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. krusei and C. parapsilosis for gliotoxin production using a highly sensitive HPLC protocol, and, for selected isolates, confirmed our findings by tandem MS. This approach did not detect intracellular or extracellular gliotoxin production by any of the isolates examined, although various culture conditions were applied. Therefore, in contrast to previous studies, our data strongly suggest that at least the Candida species investigated in this study are not able to produce the secondary metabolite gliotoxin.

Deletion of the gliP gene of Aspergillus fumigatus results in loss of gliotoxin production but has no effect on virulence of the fungus in a low-dose mouse infection model.

Gliotoxin is a secondary metabolite produced by several fungi including the opportunistic human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus. As gliotoxin exerts immunosuppressive effects in vitro and in vivo, a role as a virulence determinant in invasive aspergillosis has been discussed for a long time but evidence has not been provided until now. Here, by the use of different selection marker genes A. fumigatus knock-out strains were generated that are deficient for the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase GliP, the putative key enzyme of the gliotoxin biosynthesis. Deletion of the gliP gene resulted in loss of gliotoxin production, as analysed by high performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. No differences in morphology or growth kinetics between wild-type and gliP-deletion strains were observed. In vitro, the culture supernatant of the gliP-deficient strains showed a reduced cytotoxic effect on both macrophage-like cells and T cell lines. In a low-dose murine infection model of invasive aspergillosis, gliotoxin was detected in the lung and absent when mice were infected with the gliP deletion strain. However, gliP deletion strains showed no difference in virulence compared with the corresponding wild-type strains. Taken together, the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase GliP is essential for gliotoxin production in A. fumigatus. Gliotoxin is not required for pathogenicity of the fungus in immunocompromised mice, despite the fact that a reduced cytotoxicity of the culture supernatant of gliP deletion strains was demonstrated.