Interpersonal stress generation among young adolescents: vulnerable and resilient interpersonal behaviors and the generation of negative and positive interpersonal events.

Background: Theoretical and empirical studies on stress generation suggest four event generation processes: (1) vulnerability factors predict more negative interpersonal events; (2) vulnerability factors predict fewer positive interpersonal events; (3) resiliency factors predict fewer negative interpersonal events; and (4) resiliency factors predict more positive interpersonal events. However, few studies have examined these four processes simultaneously within a single analytic model. Therefore, it is unclear whether vulnerability and resiliency factors make unique and differential contributions to the occurrences of negative and positive interpersonal events. General objectives: This study aimed to fill this important gap by examining whether social withdrawal and excessive reassurance-seeking (vulnerable interpersonal behaviors) and prosocial behaviors (a resilient interpersonal behavior) uniquely and differentially predict the occurrences of negative and positive peer events among young adolescents. This study also examined the sex differences in these relationships. Methods: One hundred and ninety-eight students (109 girls) were recruited from a public middle school in Japan. A multiple-group path analysis was conducted to examine possible sex differences. Results: Social withdrawal uniquely predicted more negative peer events for boys and fewer positive peer events for boys and girls. Excessive reassurance-seeking uniquely predicted both more negative peer events and more positive peer events for boys and girls. Prosocial behavior uniquely predicted more positive peer events for boys and girls. Conclusion: This study underscores the unique and differential roles of vulnerable and resilient interpersonal behaviors in predicting negative and positive peer events among young adolescents. These findings not only advance our understanding of stress generation processes but also have broader implications for adolescent development and well-being.

Benefits of mindfulness in academic settings: trait mindfulness has incremental validity over motivational factors in predicting academic affect, cognition, and behavior.

BACKGROUND: Achievement motivation research has established that motivational factors predict academic affect, cognition, and behavior. Recent studies have shown that trait mindfulness might also predict these academic outcomes. However, it remains unclear whether trait mindfulness has incremental validity over motivational factors. We hypothesized that trait mindfulness would explain unique variance in academic outcomes beyond motivational factors, because mindfulness that is characterized by the being mode of mind (i.e., a present-focused, non-striving, and accepting mind mode) would contribute to academic outcomes through unique and effective self-regulatory processes (i.e., bottom-up self-regulation of learning and present-focused, acceptance-based self-regulation of academic stress), which differ from those (i.e., top-down self-regulation of learning and future-focused, change-oriented self-regulation of academic stress) promoted by motivational factors that are characterized by the doing mode of mind (i.e., a goal-oriented, striving, and change-seeking mind mode). We tested the hypothesis by examining four established motivational factors (competence perception, implicit theory of intelligence, achievement goals, and autonomous and controlled academic reasons) and five outcome variables (test anxiety, enjoyment of learning, study strategy, mind-wandering, and help-seeking avoidance) that had been investigated in both the trait mindfulness and achievement motivation literatures. METHODS: One hundred and seventy-five students (104 females) were recruited from undergraduate psychology and cultural studies classes at two universities in Japan. Trait mindfulness was assessed using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. The other study variables were assessed using established measures as well. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression analyses to test the hypothesis. RESULTS: Trait mindfulness predicted four of the five outcome variables (i.e., test anxiety, enjoyment of learning, mind-wandering, and help-seeking avoidance) after controlling for the motivational factors. The acting-with-awareness facet predicted three outcome variables, whereas the other facets predicted one outcome each. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the incremental validity of trait mindfulness relative to motivational factors, suggesting that not only the doing mode of mind but also the being mode is beneficial for academic learning.

The Relationship Between Perceived Parenting, Negative Core Beliefs, and Dysfunctional Attitudes Among Young Adults.

Previous studies have found that perceived parenting is associated with dysfunctional attitudes that predict depression. However, few studies have empirically investigated processes by which perceived parenting is associated with dysfunctional attitudes. To fill this gap, this study tested the hypothesis that perceived low parental care would be associated with negative core beliefs, which, in turn, would be associated with dysfunctional attitudes. To strictly test the hypothesis, this study controlled for current depressive symptoms that could affect the relationships between study variables. The participants were 305 college students (141 females). The results differed by sex: for female students, the hypothesis was supported; for male students, negative core beliefs were associated with dysfunctional attitudes; however, perceived low care was not associated with negative core beliefs. The findings suggest that targeting low parental care and negative core beliefs for females and negative core beliefs for males may help prevent their dysfunctional attitudes and the resultant depression.

Dysfunctional Attitudes Lead to Depressive Symptoms by Generating Subjective Stress.

Previous studies have indicated that objective stress-negative events that have actually occurred outside of individuals-is involved in processes of dysfunctional attitudes leading to depression. Subjective stress-individuals' perception of negative events that have not actually occurred outside of them-is also predicted to be involved in these processes. However, few studies have empirically investigated this prediction. The primary purpose of this study was to fill this gap by testing the hypothesis that dysfunctional attitudes lead to depression by generating subjective stress. A longitudinal design was employed and initial depression was controlled. The results supported the hypothesis. It was also found that initial depression fostered subsequent depression by generating subjective stress. This study contributes to the literature on depression mechanisms by elucidating that subjective stress plays an important role in the development and exacerbation of depression. This study also has important clinical implications as it suggests that preventing subjective stress in individuals with dysfunctional attitudes or depression helps to protect the development or exacerbation of their depression.

[Do dysfunctional attitudes and depressogenic inferential styles predict positive life events?]

Although research has indicated that dysfunctional attitudes (DA) and depressogenic inferential styles (DIS) lead to depression when negative life events occur, little is known about how these factors function when negative life events do not occur. This longitudinal study examined the hypotheses that DA and DIS at Time 1 would lead to positive life events at Time 2 (four weeks later) in the absence of, but not in the presence of, negative life events at Time 2. This study also examined whether the effects of DA and DIS on positive life events differ depending on initial levels of depression. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that in the prediction of positive events, interactions of DA and DIS with negative events and depression were not significant. The main effect of DA was significant and positive; the main effect of DIS was significant and negative. The results indicate that the effects of DA and DIS on positive events differ, and the effects do not depend on the frequency of negative events.

[Relationships between interpersonal depressogenic schemata, generation of subjective interpersonal stress, and depressive symptoms].

A. T. Beck's cognitive model of depression posits that depressogenic schemata contribute to developing depression after stressful events occur. However, depressogenic schemata are considered to enhance the perception per se of the occurrence of stressful events. In particular, depressogenic schemata are considered to make objectively nonnegative (neutral) events stressful (i.e., generate subjective stress) through arbitrary inference, thereby contributing to developing depression. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that interpersonal depressogenic schemata generate subjective interpersonal stress, thereby contributing to developing depressive symptoms. This study employed a cross-sectional design with college students (N=199; 152 females). The results of path analyses supported the hypothesis. Implications for A. T. Beck's model and C. Hammen's stress generation model were discussed.

Establishment and characterization of a nerve cell line (NC-HIMT) from HIMT cells derived from a human ovarian immature teratoma with special reference to the induction of neuron differentiation by retinoic acid.

A nerve cell line designated NC-HIMT was established from a HIMT cell line derived from a benign ovarian, three germ layer immature teratoma removed from a 21-year-old Japanese female. The HIMT cells were elongated, ellipsoid or spherical in shape, whose karyotype was on the high side of normal diploidy. Small amounts of retinoic acid enhanced differentiation and maturation of the HIMT cells into nervous tissue, and the NC-HIMT cell line was established by the colony isolating technique when the HIMT cell line was cultured in the presence of retinoic acid-supplemented medium. After establishment, the NC-HIMT cell line was cultured and maintained in retinoic acid-free growth medium. Even though these cells were cultured without retinoic acid, the phenotype of nerve cells remained and the cells were also maintained in a state of high normal diploidy. The nerve cells contacted each other with their long cell projections and formed networks. Immunocytochemical observations using anti-bovine NSE, alpha-internexin, neurofilament 200kD, peripherin and GFAP confirmed that the cells were either nerve cells or glia cells. These results assume that HIMT cells, which were derived from an immature teratoma, have progenitor and/or stem cells which can differentiate into nerve and/or glial cells.