ABSTRACT
Currently virus surveillance in swine herds is constrained by the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of sampling methods. The objective of this study was to assess the value of using oral fluids collected by barn personnel as a method of surveillance based on PCR testing. Approximately 12,150 pigs in 10 wean-to-finish barns on 10 farms were monitored for the presence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), influenza A virus (IAV), and Torque teno virus genogroups 1 (TTV1) and 2 (TTV2) by sampling oral fluid specimens. Oral fluid samples were collected from 6 pens at each site starting at the time of pig placement (â¼3 weeks of age) and continuing thereafter at 2-week intervals for a period of 18 weeks. Data were analyzed both on a pen basis and barn basis. Overall, 508 (85%) samples were positive for PCV2, 73 (12%) for PRRSV, 46 (8%) for IAV, 483 (81%) for TTV2, and 155 (26%) for TTV1 during the study period. The estimated arithmetic means of the quantitative PCR-positive oral fluids for PCV2, PRRSV, and IAV were 1×10(4.62), 1×10(4.97), and 1×10(5.49)per ml. With a single exception, all barns were positive for PCV2 and TTV2 at every sampling point in the study. Virus detection varied among barns, particularly for IAV and PRRSV. The pen level, cumulative distribution of agent combinations between all 10 barns were statistically different. The most commonly observed patterns were PCV2+TTV2 (239 pen samples, 40%), PCV2+TTV1+TTV2 (88 pen samples, 15%), and PCV2 alone (66 pen samples, 11%). This "proof-of-concept" project showed that a variety of viruses could be detected either intermittently or continuously in pig populations and demonstrated that barn herd virus status is highly variable, even among barns in the same production system. Oral fluid sampling is a promising approach for increasing the efficiency and cost effectiveness of virus surveillance in swine herds.
Subject(s)
Circovirus/isolation & purification , Influenza A virus/isolation & purification , Population Surveillance/methods , Porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus/isolation & purification , Swine Diseases/epidemiology , Swine Diseases/virology , Torque teno virus/isolation & purification , Animals , Antibodies, Viral/blood , Circoviridae Infections/epidemiology , Circoviridae Infections/veterinary , Circovirus/immunology , DNA Virus Infections/epidemiology , DNA Virus Infections/veterinary , Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay/veterinary , Influenza A virus/immunology , Orthomyxoviridae Infections/epidemiology , Orthomyxoviridae Infections/veterinary , Polymerase Chain Reaction/veterinary , Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome/epidemiology , Porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus/immunology , Saliva/virology , Survival Analysis , Swine/blood , Swine Diseases/diagnosis , Torque teno virus/immunology , United States/epidemiologyABSTRACT
Evidence from multiple lines of research supports the effectiveness and practical importance of Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous. Conference presenters discussed the relationship between 12-Step participation and abstinence among various populations, including adolescents, women, and urban drug users. Insight from the arts and humanities placed empirical findings in a holistic context.
ABSTRACT
Misconceptions about Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) abound in spite of (or because of) the thousands of theses, dissertations, books, professional and popular articles, and Internet commentaries that have been written about AA. One of the most pervasive characterizations of AA is that it is a "treatment" for alcoholism--a characterization that distorts the meaning of both mutual aid and alcoholism treatment. This article describes 12 character-defining moments in the history of AA that highlight the differences between AA and alcoholism treatment.
