Prevalence and predictors of antibiotic prescription among patients hospitalized with viral lower respiratory tract infections in Southern Province, Sri Lanka.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial overprescription is common for lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI), as viral and bacterial infections generally present with similar clinical features. Overprescription is associated with downstream antimicrobial resistance. This study aims to identify the prevalence and predictors of antibiotic prescription among patients hospitalized with viral LRTI. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was conducted among patients aged ≥1 year hospitalized with viral LRTI in a tertiary care hospital in Southern Province, Sri Lanka from 2018-2021. Demographic, clinical, and laboratory data were recorded. Nasopharyngeal and blood samples were collected for multiplex polymerase chain reaction testing for 21 respiratory pathogens and procalcitonin (PCT) detection, respectively. Demographic and clinical features associated with antibiotic prescription were identified using Chi Square and t-tests; significant variables (p<0.05) were further included in multivariable logistic regression models. The potential impact of biomarker testing on antibiotic prescription was simulated using standard c-reactive protein (CRP) and PCT cut-offs. RESULTS: Of 1217 patients enrolled, 438 (36.0%) had ≥1 respiratory virus detected, with 48.4% of these patients being male and 30.8% children. Influenza A (39.3%) and human rhinovirus/ enterovirus (28.3%) were most commonly detected. A total of 114 (84.4%) children and 266 (87.8%) adults with respiratory viruses were treated with antibiotics. Among children, neutrophil percentage (median 63.6% vs 47.6%, p = 0.04) was positively associated with antibiotic prescription. Among adults, headache (60.6% vs 35.1%, p = 0.003), crepitations/crackles (55.3% vs 21.6%, p<0.001), rhonchi/wheezing (42.9% vs 18.9%, p = 0.005), and chest x-ray opacities (27.4% vs 8.1%, p = 0.01) were associated with antibiotic prescription. Access to CRP and procalcitonin test results could have potentially decreased inappropriate antibiotic prescription in this study by 89.5% and 83.3%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: High proportions of viral detection and antibiotic prescription were observed among a large inpatient cohort with LRTI. Increased access to point-of-care biomarker testing may improve antimicrobial prescription.

Host-response transcriptional biomarkers accurately discriminate bacterial and viral infections of global relevance.

Diagnostic limitations challenge management of clinically indistinguishable acute infectious illness globally. Gene expression classification models show great promise distinguishing causes of fever. We generated transcriptional data for a 294-participant (USA, Sri Lanka) discovery cohort with adjudicated viral or bacterial infections of diverse etiology or non-infectious disease mimics. We then derived and cross-validated gene expression classifiers including: 1) a single model to distinguish bacterial vs. viral (Global Fever-Bacterial/Viral [GF-B/V]) and 2) a two-model system to discriminate bacterial and viral in the context of noninfection (Global Fever-Bacterial/Viral/Non-infectious [GF-B/V/N]). We then translated to a multiplex RT-PCR assay and independent validation involved 101 participants (USA, Sri Lanka, Australia, Cambodia, Tanzania). The GF-B/V model discriminated bacterial from viral infection in the discovery cohort an area under the receiver operator curve (AUROC) of 0.93. Validation in an independent cohort demonstrated the GF-B/V model had an AUROC of 0.84 (95% CI 0.76-0.90) with overall accuracy of 81.6% (95% CI 72.7-88.5). Performance did not vary with age, demographics, or site. Host transcriptional response diagnostics distinguish bacterial and viral illness across global sites with diverse endemic pathogens.

Correction: Outcomes among children and adults at risk of severe dengue in Sri Lanka: Opportunity for outpatient case management in countries with high disease burden.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010091.].

Opportunities for Improving Antimicrobial Stewardship: Findings From a Prospective, Multi-Center Study in Three Low- or Middle-Income Countries.

Background: To develop effective antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASPs) for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), it is important to identify key targets for improving antimicrobial use. We sought to systematically describe the prevalence and patterns of antimicrobial use in three LMIC hospitals. Methods: Consecutive patients admitted to the adult medical wards in three tertiary care hospitals in Tanzania, Kenya, and Sri Lanka were enrolled in 2018-2019. The medical record was reviewed for clinical information including type and duration of antimicrobials prescribed, indications for antimicrobial use, and microbiologic testing ordered. Results: A total of 3,149 patients were enrolled during the study period: 1,103 from Tanzania, 750 from Kenya, and 1,296 from Sri Lanka. The majority of patients were male (1,783, 56.6% overall) with a median age of 55 years (IQR 38-68). Of enrolled patients, 1,573 (50.0%) received antimicrobials during their hospital stay: 35.4% in Tanzania, 56.5% in Kenya, and 58.6% in Sri Lanka. At each site, the most common indication for antimicrobial use was lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI; 40.2%). However, 61.0% received antimicrobials for LRTI in the absence of LRTI signs on chest radiography. Among patients receiving antimicrobials, tools to guide antimicrobial use were under-utilized: microbiologic cultures in 12.0% and microbiology consultation in 6.5%. Conclusion: Antimicrobials were used in a substantial proportion of patients at tertiary care hospitals across three LMIC sites. Future ASP efforts should include improving LRTI diagnosis and treatment, developing antibiograms to direct empiric antimicrobial use, and increasing use of microbiologic tests.

Outcomes among children and adults at risk of severe dengue in Sri Lanka: Opportunity for outpatient case management in countries with high disease burden.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare systems in dengue-endemic countries are often overburdened due to the high number of patients hospitalized according to dengue management guidelines. We systematically evaluated clinical outcomes in a large cohort of patients hospitalized with acute dengue to support triaging of patients to ambulatory versus inpatient management in the future. METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: From June 2017- December 2018, we conducted surveillance among children and adults with fever within the prior 7 days who were hospitalized at the largest tertiary-care (1,800 bed) hospital in the Southern Province, Sri Lanka. Patients who developed platelet count ≤100,000/µL (threshold for hospital admission in Sri Lanka) and who met at least two clinical criteria consistent with dengue were eligible for enrollment. We confirmed acute dengue by testing sera collected at enrollment for dengue NS1 antigen or IgM antibodies. We defined primary outcomes as per the 1997 and 2009 World Health Organization (WHO) classification criteria: dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF; WHO 1997), dengue shock syndrome (DSS; WHO 1997), and severe dengue (WHO 2009). Overall, 1064 patients were confirmed as having acute dengue: 318 (17.4%) by NS1 rapid antigen testing and 746 (40.7%) by IgM antibody testing. Of these 1064 patients, 994 (93.4%) were adults ≥18 years and 704 (66.2%) were male. The majority (56, 80%) of children and more than half of adults (544, 54.7%) developed DHF during hospitalization, while 6 (8.6%) children and 22 (2.2%) adults developed DSS. Overall, 10 (14.3%) children and 113 (11.4%) adults developed severe dengue. A total of 2 (0.2%) patients died during hospitalization. CONCLUSIONS: One-half of patients hospitalized with acute dengue progressed to develop DHF and a very small number developed DSS or severe dengue. Developing an algorithm for triaging patients to ambulatory versus inpatient management should be the future goal to optimize utilization of healthcare resources in dengue-endemic countries.

The Host Response to Viral Infections Reveals Common and Virus-Specific Signatures in the Peripheral Blood.

Viruses cause a wide spectrum of clinical disease, the majority being acute respiratory infections (ARI). In most cases, ARI symptoms are similar for different viruses although severity can be variable. The objective of this study was to understand the shared and unique elements of the host transcriptional response to different viral pathogens. We identified 162 subjects in the US and Sri Lanka with infections due to influenza, enterovirus/rhinovirus, human metapneumovirus, dengue virus, cytomegalovirus, Epstein Barr Virus, or adenovirus. Our dataset allowed us to identify common pathways at the molecular level as well as virus-specific differences in the host immune response. Conserved elements of the host response to these viral infections highlighted the importance of interferon pathway activation. However, the magnitude of the responses varied between pathogens. We also identified virus-specific responses to influenza, enterovirus/rhinovirus, and dengue infections. Influenza-specific differentially expressed genes (DEG) revealed up-regulation of pathways related to viral defense and down-regulation of pathways related to T cell and neutrophil responses. Functional analysis of entero/rhinovirus-specific DEGs revealed up-regulation of pathways for neutrophil activation, negative regulation of immune response, and p38MAPK cascade and down-regulation of virus defenses and complement activation. Functional analysis of dengue-specific up-regulated DEGs showed enrichment of pathways for DNA replication and cell division whereas down-regulated DEGs were mainly associated with erythrocyte and myeloid cell homeostasis, reactive oxygen and peroxide metabolic processes. In conclusion, our study will contribute to a better understanding of molecular mechanisms to viral infections in humans and the identification of biomarkers to distinguish different types of viral infections.

Knowledge, Perceptions, and Attitudes Regarding Antibiotic Use for Lower Respiratory Tract Infections: Insights from Patients in Sri Lanka.

Antibiotic resistance is an emerging global public health threat. One of the main drivers of this threat is the inappropriate use of antibiotics. In Sri Lanka, antibiotic consumption is increasing, but little is known locally about how patients perceive antibiotics. We conducted a qualitative study to gain a better understanding of the knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes of patients regarding antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. Semi-structured interviews involving 18 patients with lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) admitted to a large, public tertiary care hospital in southern Sri Lanka were conducted. Interviews were analyzed to identify themes regarding the patients' knowledge of LRTI etiology and treatment, perceptions and attitudes toward LRTI treatment, including antibiotics, and patient-physician communication. Most patients mentioned multiple care visits and the use of multiple pharmaceuticals prior to admission. Patients sought a quick resolution to their ailments and frequently visited several private physicians to obtain a satisfying answer. Self-medication was also common. Patients reused prescriptions for antibiotics, kept antibiotics for later use after prematurely stopping their course of treatment, and bought over-the-counter antibiotics. Patients' knowledge of disease etiology and antibiotics was poor. Only a few patients were aware of antibiotic resistance. Despite the desire to receive more information regarding disease and treatment, patient-provider communication was limited and mainly confined to prescription instructions. This qualitative study performed in Sri Lanka suggests that inappropriate use of antibiotics is a multifactorial problem. To improve antibiotic use, a multifactorial approach that includes educating the public, increasing awareness among physicians, and implementing systems-level changes to restrict access to antibiotics is urgently needed.

Colonization with multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae among infants: an observational study in southern Sri Lanka.

BACKGROUND: The timing of and risk factors for intestinal colonization with multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (MDRE) are still poorly understood in areas with high MDRE carriage. We determined the prevalence, timing, and risk factors associated with MDRE intestinal colonization among infants in southern Sri Lanka. METHODS: Women and their newborn children were enrolled within 48 h after delivery in southern Sri Lanka. Rectal swabs were collected from women and infants at enrollment and 4-6 weeks later. Enterobacteriaceae were isolated and identified as MDRE (positive for extended-spectrum ß-lactamases or carbapenem resistant) using standard microbiologic procedures. We used exact methods (Fisher's exact and Kruskal-Wallis tests) and multivariable logistic regression to identify sociodemographic and clinical features associated with MDRE intestinal colonization. Whole-genome sequencing was performed on selected MDRE isolates to identify phylogroups and antibiotic resistance-encoding genes were identified with NCBI's AMRfinder tool. RESULTS: Overall, 199 post-partum women and 199 infants were enrolled; 148/199 (74.4%) women and 151/199 (75.9%) infants were reassessed later in the community. Twenty-four/199 (12.1%) women and 3/199 (1.5%) infants displayed intestinal colonization with MDRE at enrollment, while 26/148 (17.6%) women and 24/151 (15.9%) infants displayed intestinal colonization with MDRE at the reassessment. While there were no risk factors associated with infant colonization at enrollment, multivariable analysis indicated that risk factors for infant colonization at reassessment included mother colonized at enrollment (aOR = 3.62) or reassessment (aOR = 4.44), delivery by Cesarean section (aOR = 2.91), and low birth weight (aOR = 5.39). Of the 20 MDRE isolates from infants that were sequenced, multilocus sequence typing revealed that 6/20 (30%) were clustered on the same branch as MDRE isolates found in the respective mothers. All sequenced isolates for mothers (47) and infants (20) had at least one ESBL-producing gene. Genes encoding fosfomycin resistance were found in 33/47 (70%) of mothers' isolates and 16/20 (80%) of infants' isolates and genes encoding resistance to colistin were found in one (2%) mother's isolate. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that a substantial proportion of infants undergo MDRE intestinal colonization within 6 weeks of birth, potentially due to postnatal rather than intranatal transmission.

Point-prevalence survey of outpatient antibiotic prescription at a tertiary medical center in Sri Lanka: opportunities to improve prescribing practices for respiratory illnesses.

BACKGROUND: Inappropriate antibiotic use is linked to the spread of antimicrobial resistance worldwide, but there are limited systemic data on antibiotic utilization in low- and middle-income countries. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and patterns of antibiotic prescription in an ambulatory care setting in Sri Lanka. METHODS: This cross-sectional survey was conducted at the Outpatient Department of a public tertiary medical center in Southern Province, Sri Lanka from February to April 2019. Among consecutive outpatients presenting for care, questionnaires were verbally administered to a systematic random sample to capture information about patient demographics, illness characteristics, and visit outcomes. Prescription data were obtained from the outpatient pharmacy's electronic prescribing system. RESULTS: Of 409 surveyed patients, 146 (35.7%) were prescribed an antibiotic. The most frequently prescribed agents were amoxicillin (41 patients, 28.1% of antibiotic recipients) and first-generation cephalosporins (38, 26.0%). Respiratory indications were the most common reason for antibiotic use, comprising 69 (47.3%) of all antibiotic prescriptions. Antibiotics were prescribed for 66.1% of patients presenting with cough and 78.8% of those presenting with rhinorrhea or nasal congestion. Among all antibiotic recipients, 6 (4.1%) underwent diagnostic studies. CONCLUSIONS: A high prevalence of antibiotic prescription was observed, in particular for treatment of respiratory conditions. These data support the need for improved antimicrobial stewardship in the Sri Lankan outpatient setting.

Outbreak of severe acute respiratory infection in Southern Province, Sri Lanka in 2018: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: To determine aetiology of illness among children and adults presenting during outbreak of severe respiratory illness in Southern Province, Sri Lanka, in 2018. DESIGN: Prospective, cross-sectional study. SETTING: 1600-bed, public, tertiary care hospital in Southern Province, Sri Lanka. PARTICIPANTS: 410 consecutive patients, including 371 children and 39 adults, who were admitted with suspected viral pneumonia (passive surveillance) or who met case definition for acute respiratory illness (active surveillance) in May to June 2018. RESULTS: We found that cocirculation of influenza A (22.6% of cases), respiratory syncytial virus (27.8%) and adenovirus (AdV) (30.7%; type B3) was responsible for the outbreak. Mortality was noted in 4.5% of paediatric cases identified during active surveillance. Virus type and viral coinfection were not significantly associated with mortality. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of intense cocirculation of multiple respiratory viruses as a cause of an outbreak of severe acute respiratory illness in Sri Lanka, and the first time that AdV has been documented as a cause of a respiratory outbreak in the country. Our results emphasise the need for continued vigilance in surveying for known and emerging respiratory viruses in the tropics.

Previously Derived Host Gene Expression Classifiers Identify Bacterial and Viral Etiologies of Acute Febrile Respiratory Illness in a South Asian Population.

BACKGROUND: Pathogen-based diagnostics for acute respiratory infection (ARI) have limited ability to detect etiology of illness. We previously showed that peripheral blood-based host gene expression classifiers accurately identify bacterial and viral ARI in cohorts of European and African descent. We determined classifier performance in a South Asian cohort. METHODS: Patients ≥15 years with fever and respiratory symptoms were enrolled in Sri Lanka. Comprehensive pathogen-based testing was performed. Peripheral blood ribonucleic acid was sequenced and previously developed signatures were applied: a pan-viral classifier (viral vs nonviral) and an ARI classifier (bacterial vs viral vs noninfectious). RESULTS: Ribonucleic acid sequencing was performed in 79 subjects: 58 viral infections (36 influenza, 22 dengue) and 21 bacterial infections (10 leptospirosis, 11 scrub typhus). The pan-viral classifier had an overall classification accuracy of 95%. The ARI classifier had an overall classification accuracy of 94%, with sensitivity and specificity of 91% and 95%, respectively, for bacterial infection. The sensitivity and specificity of C-reactive protein (>10 mg/L) and procalcitonin (>0.25 ng/mL) for bacterial infection were 100% and 34%, and 100% and 41%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Previously derived gene expression classifiers had high predictive accuracy at distinguishing viral and bacterial infection in South Asian patients with ARI caused by typical and atypical pathogens.

Geospatial analysis of dengue emergence in rural areas in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka.

BACKGROUND: Dengue is a major cause of acute febrile illness in Sri Lanka. Dengue has historically been considered an urban disease. In 2012-2013, we documented that acute dengue was surprisingly associated with self-reported rural residence in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka. METHODS: Patients admitted with an acute febrile illness were enrolled from June 2012-May 2013 in a cross-sectional surveillance study at the largest tertiary care hospital in the Southern Province. Acute dengue was diagnosed by serology and virology testing. Site visits were performed to collect residential geographical coordinates. Spatial variation in odds of acute dengue was modeled using a spatial generalized additive model predicted onto a grid of coordinate pairs covering the Southern Province. RESULTS: Of 800 patients, 333 (41.6%) had laboratory-confirmed acute dengue. Dengue was spatially heterogeneous (local probability of acute dengue 0.26 to 0.42). There were higher than average odds of acute dengue in the rural northeast of the Southern Province and lower than average odds in the urbanized southwest of the Southern Province, including the city Galle. CONCLUSIONS: Our study further affirms the emergence of dengue in rural southern Sri Lanka and highlights both the need for real-time geospatial analyses to optimize public health activities as well as the importance of strengthening dengue surveillance in non-urban areas.

Use of clinical algorithms and rapid influenza testing to manage influenza-like illness: a cost-effectiveness analysis in Sri Lanka.

BACKGROUND: Acute respiratory infections are a common reason for antibiotic overuse. We previously showed that providing Sri Lankan clinicians with positive rapid influenza test results was associated with a reduction in antibiotic prescriptions. The economic impact of influenza diagnostic strategies is unknown. METHODS: We estimated the incremental cost per antibiotic prescription avoided with three diagnostic strategies versus standard care when managing Sri Lankan outpatients with influenza-like illness (ILI): (1) influenza clinical prediction tool, (2) targeted rapid influenza testing and (3) universal rapid influenza testing. We compared findings with literature-based estimates of the cost of antimicrobial resistance attributable to each antibiotic prescription. RESULTS: Standard care was less expensive than other strategies across all parameter values in one-way sensitivity analyses. The incremental cost per antibiotic prescription avoided with clinical prediction versus standard care was US$3.0, which was lower than the base-case estimate of the cost of antimicrobial resistance per ILI antibiotic prescription (US$12.5). The incremental cost per antibiotic prescription avoided with targeted testing and universal testing versus standard care were both higher than the base-case cost of antimicrobial resistance per ILI antibiotic prescription: US$49.1 and US$138.3, respectively. To obtain a cost-effectiveness ratio lower than US$12.5 with targeted testing versus standard care, the test price must be

Point-prevalence study of antimicrobial use in public hospitals in southern Sri Lanka identifies opportunities for improving prescribing practices.

A point-prevalence study of antimicrobial use among inpatients at 5 public hospitals in Sri Lanka revealed that 54.6% were receiving antimicrobials: 43.1% in medical wards, 68.0% in surgical wards, and 97.6% in intensive care wards. Amoxicillin-clavulanate was most commonly used for major indications. Among patients receiving antimicrobials, 31.0% received potentially inappropriate therapy.

Respiratory Viral Infection: An Underappreciated Cause of Acute Febrile Illness Admissions in Southern Sri Lanka.

The contribution of respiratory viruses to acute febrile illness (AFI) burden is poorly characterized. We describe the prevalence, seasonality, and clinical features of respiratory viral infection among AFI admissions in Sri Lanka. We enrolled AFI patients ≥ 1 year of age admitted to a tertiary care hospital in southern Sri Lanka, June 2012-October 2014. We collected epidemiologic/clinical data and a nasal or nasopharyngeal sample that was tested using polymerase chain reaction (Luminex NxTAG, Austin, TX). We determined associations between weather data and respiratory viral activity using the Spearman correlation and assessed respiratory virus seasonality using a Program for Appropriate Technology definition. Bivariable and multivariable regression analyses were conducted to identify features associated with respiratory virus detection. Among 964 patients, median age was 26.2 years (interquartile range 14.6-39.9) and 646 (67.0%) were male. One-fifth (203, 21.1%) had respiratory virus detected: 13.9% influenza, 1.4% human enterovirus/rhinovirus, 1.4% parainfluenza virus, 1.1% respiratory syncytial virus, and 1.1% human metapneumovirus. Patients with respiratory virus identified were younger (median 9.8 versus 27.7 years, P < 0.001) and more likely to have respiratory signs and symptoms. Influenza A and respiratory viral activity peaked in February-June each year. Maximum daily temperature was associated with influenza and respiratory viral activity (P = 0.03 each). Patients with respiratory virus were as likely as others to be prescribed antibiotics (55.2% versus 52.6%, P = 0.51), and none reported prior influenza vaccination. Respiratory viral infection was a common cause of AFI. Improved access to vaccines and respiratory diagnostics may help reduce disease burden and inappropriate antibiotic use.

Evaluation of the WHO 2009 classification for diagnosis of acute dengue in a large cohort of adults and children in Sri Lanka during a dengue-1 epidemic.

BACKGROUND: Dengue is a leading cause of fever and mimics other acute febrile illnesses (AFI). In 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) revised criteria for clinical diagnosis of dengue. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The new WHO 2009 classification of dengue divides suspected cases into three categories: dengue without warning signs, dengue with warning signs and severe dengue. We evaluated the WHO 2009 classification vs physicians' subjective clinical diagnosis (gestalt clinical impression) in a large cohort of patients presenting to a tertiary care center in southern Sri Lanka hospitalized with acute febrile illness. We confirmed acute dengue in 388 patients (305 adults ≥ 18 years and 83 children), including 103 primary and 245 secondary cases, of 976 patients prospectively enrolled with AFI. At presentation, both adults and children with acute dengue were more likely than those with other AFI to have leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. Additionally, adults were more likely than those with other AFI to have joint pain, higher temperatures, and absence of crackles on examination whereas children with dengue were more likely than others to have sore throat, fatigue, oliguria, and elevated hematocrit and transaminases. Similarly, presence of joint pain, thrombocytopenia, and absence of cough were independently associated with secondary vs primary dengue in adults whereas no variables were different in children. The 2009 WHO dengue classification was more sensitive than physicians' clinical diagnosis for identification of acute dengue (71.5% vs 67.1%), but was less specific. However, despite the absence of on-site diagnostic confirmation of dengue, clinical diagnosis was more sensitive on discharge (75.2%). The 2009 WHO criteria classified almost 75% as having warning signs, even though only 9 (2.3%) patients had evidence of plasma leakage and 16 (4.1%) had evidence of bleeding. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: In a large cohort with AFI, we identified features predictive of dengue vs other AFI and secondary vs primary dengue in adults versus children. The 2009 WHO dengue classification criteria had high sensitivity but low specificity compared to physicians' gestaldt diagnosis. Large cohort studies will be needed to validate the diagnostic yield of clinical impression and specific features for dengue relative to the 2009 WHO classification criteria.

Burden and Seasonality of Viral Acute Respiratory Tract Infections among Outpatients in Southern Sri Lanka.

In tropical and subtropical settings, the epidemiology of viral acute respiratory tract infections varies widely between countries. We determined the etiology, seasonality, and clinical presentation of viral acute respiratory tract infections among outpatients in southern Sri Lanka. From March 2013 to January 2015, we enrolled outpatients presenting with influenza-like illness (ILI). Nasal/nasopharyngeal samples were tested in duplicate using antigen-based rapid influenza testing and multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for respiratory viruses. Monthly proportion positive was calculated for each virus. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression were used to identify associations between sociodemographic/clinical information and viral detection. Of 571 subjects, most (470, 82.3%) were ≥ 5 years of age and 53.1% were male. A respiratory virus was detected by PCR in 63.6% (N = 363). Common viral etiologies included influenza (223, 39%), human enterovirus/rhinovirus (HEV/HRV, 14.5%), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV, 4.2%), and human metapneumovirus (hMPV, 3.9%). Both ILI and influenza showed clear seasonal variation, with peaks from March to June each year. RSV and hMPV activity peaked from May to July, whereas HEV/HRV was seen year-round. Patients with respiratory viruses detected were more likely to report pain with breathing (odds ratio [OR] = 2.60, P = 0.003), anorexia (OR = 2.29, P < 0.001), and fatigue (OR = 2.00, P = 0.002) compared with patients with no respiratory viruses detected. ILI showed clear seasonal variation in southern Sri Lanka, with most activity during March to June; peak activity was largely due to influenza. Targeted infection prevention activities such as influenza vaccination in January-February may have a large public health impact in this region.

Emergence of Epidemic Dengue-1 Virus in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka.

BACKGROUND: Dengue is a frequent cause of acute febrile illness with an expanding global distribution. Since the 1960s, dengue in Sri Lanka has been documented primarily along the heavily urbanized western coast with periodic shifting of serotypes. Outbreaks from 2005-2008 were attributed to a new clade of DENV-3 and more recently to a newly introduced genotype of DENV-1. In 2007, we conducted etiologic surveillance of acute febrile illness in the Southern Province and confirmed dengue in only 6.3% of febrile patients, with no cases of DENV-1 identified. To re-evaluate the importance of dengue as an etiology of acute febrile illness in this region, we renewed fever surveillance in the Southern Province to newly identify and characterize dengue. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A cross-sectional surveillance study was conducted at the largest tertiary care hospital in the Southern Province from 2012-2013. A total of 976 patients hospitalized with acute undifferentiated fever were enrolled, with 64.3% male and 31.4% children. Convalescent blood samples were collected from 877 (89.6%). Dengue virus isolation, dengue RT-PCR, and paired IgG ELISA were performed. Acute dengue was confirmed as the etiology for 388 (39.8%) of 976 hospitalizations, with most cases (291, 75.0%) confirmed virologically and by multiple methods. Among 351 cases of virologically confirmed dengue, 320 (91.2%) were due to DENV-1. Acute dengue was associated with self-reported rural residence, travel, and months having greatest rainfall. Sequencing of selected dengue viruses revealed that sequences were most closely related to those described from China and Southeast Asia, not nearby India. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: We describe the first epidemic of DENV-1 in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka in a population known to be susceptible to this serotype because of prior study. Dengue accounted for 40% of acute febrile illnesses in the current study. The emergence of DENV-1 as the foremost serotype in this densely populated but agrarian population highlights the changing epidemiology of dengue and the need for continued surveillance and prevention.

Use of Rapid Influenza Testing to Reduce Antibiotic Prescriptions Among Outpatients with Influenza-Like Illness in Southern Sri Lanka.

Acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs) are a common reason for unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions worldwide. Our objective was to determine if providing access to rapid influenza test results could reduce antibiotic prescriptions for ARTIs in a resource-limited setting. We conducted a prospective, pre-post study from March 2013 to October 2014. Outpatients presenting to a hospital in Sri Lanka were surveyed for influenza-like illness-onset of fever ≥ 38.0°C and cough in prior 7 days. Enrolled patients were administered a structured questionnaire, physical examination, and nasal/nasopharyngeal sampling for rapid influenza A/B testing. Influenza test results were released only during phase 2 (January-October 2014). We enrolled 571 patients with ILI-316 in phase 1 and 241 in phase 2. The proportion positive for influenza was 46.5% in phase 1 and 28.6% in phase 2, P < 0.001. Between phases, antibiotic prescriptions decreased from 81.3% to 69.3% (P = 0.001) among all patients and from 83.7% to 62.3% (P = 0.001) among influenza-positive patients. On multivariable analysis, a positive influenza result during phase 2 was associated with lower odds of antibiotic prescriptions (OR = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.26-0.95). This prospective study suggests that providing access to rapid influenza testing may reduce unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions in resource-limited settings.

An under-recognized influenza epidemic identified by rapid influenza testing, southern Sri Lanka, 2013.

Influenza accounts for a large burden of acute respiratory tract infections in high-income countries; data from lower-income settings are limited due to lack of confirmatory testing. Consecutive outpatients presenting to the largest tertiary care hospital in southern Sri Lanka were surveyed for influenza-like illness (ILI), defined as acute onset of fever ≥ 38.0°C and cough. Patients were administered a questionnaire and nasal/nasopharyngeal sampling for rapid influenza A/B testing. We enrolled 311 patients with ILI from March to November 2013: 170 (54.7%) children and 172 (55.3%) males. Approximately half (147, 47.3%) tested positive for influenza, but 253 (81.4%) were prescribed antibiotics. On bivariable analysis, symptoms associated with influenza included pain with breathing (P < 0.001), headache (P = 0.005), fatigue (P = 0.003), arthralgias (P = 0.003), and myalgias (P = 0.006) in children and pain with breathing (P = 0.01), vomiting (P = 0.03), and arthralgias (P = 0.03) in adults. Our final clinical predictive models had low sensitivity and fair specificity-50.0% (95% CI: 38.6-61.4%) and 83.2% (95% CI: 73.4-90.0%), respectively, in children and 52.2% (95% CI: 39.9-64.2%) and 81.4% (95% CI: 70.0-89.4%), respectively, in adults. Our study confirms the ability of rapid influenza testing to identify an influenza epidemic in a setting in which testing is not routinely available.