[Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842) and his contribution to neurology (the 250th anniversary of the birth)]. / Ser Charl'z Bell (1774­1842) i ego vklad v nevrologiyu (k 250-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya).

Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842) is Scottish physiologist, surgeon, artist, philosopher and anatomist. Throughout his professional career, Charles Bell made a number of important discoveries and published a large number of scientific papers. Bell first presented a detailed description of the clinical picture of facial palsy (later named after him) and a number of other neurological disorders, as well as important information about referred pain and reciprocal inhibition. Exploring the physical expression of emotions, Bell described the anatomical basis of facial expressions, which became the basis and incentive for Charles Darwin's work in this direction. Being a talented artist, the scientist himself illustrated his publications. Bell was one of the first to integrate scientific research in neuroanatomy with clinical practice. His most significant discoveries are collected in the book «The Nervous System of the Human Body¼ (1830). A number of neurological conditions and patterns were named after him.

[Clinical anatomy of the Bernasconi-Cassinari artery]. / Klinicheskaya anatomiya arterii Bernaskoni­Kassinari.

The article provides a comprehensive overview of the Bernasconi-Cassinari's artery (marginal tentorial branch of internal carotid artery, r. marginalis tentorii a. carotis internae). It includes information on the history of its discovery, anatomical features, and topography. The interrelation between the anatomical features of this artery and the presence of neurological pathology in patients is discussed, along with neurosurgical treatment methodologies.

[Anatomical and clinical characteristics of the chorda tympani]. / Anatomo-klinicheskaya kharakteristika barabannoi struny.

The article presents information about the applied and clinical anatomy of the chorda tympani. Brief information is given about the history of its discovery, embryonic and postnatal development, features of anatomy, topography and morphology. The clinical aspects of the lesion and methods of studying the function of the chorda tympani are described.

[Etymology of the meninges names in the work «Onomatologia anatomica¼ by Josef Hyrtl]. / Etimologiya naimenovanii obolochek golovnogo mozga v trude Iozefa Girtlya «Onomatologia anatomica¼.

The article represents the translation of chapters of the scientific work «Onomatologia anatomica¼ (1880) by the Austrian anatomist Josef Hyrtl devoted to terminology in the anatomy of the meninges, namely arachnoidea, pia mater, dura mater, meninx.

[Etymology of russian terms in the anatomy of the urinary system].

This paper analyzes the etymology of the Russian names of the organs of the urinary system (kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra) and their separate parts (renal pelvis). It is shown that Russian anatomical terms originate from the root morphemes of the Indo-European language group, which convey morphological, physiological or anatomical features of this or that organ. At the moment Russian terminology is widely used in the study of anatomy and other fundamental and medical sciences in universities and clinical practice along with common Latin names and eponyms of names of these or other structures.

[Modern ideas on trigeminal ganglion]. / Evolyutsiya predstavlenii o troinichnom uzle.

The article summarizes data about the structural and functional organization of the sensory ganglion of V cranial nerve - trigeminal, or Gassesrian, ganglion. Information about its discovery, embryonic development, anatomy and topography, features of cyto- and histoarchitectonics are given, the role of neurotransmitters of trigeminal ganglion neurons in nociception mechanisms is reflected, the functional significance of the trigeminal system and clinical aspects of the lesion of the Gasserian ganglion are described.

[Franciscus Silvius (1614-1672) and his contributions to neuroanatomy and clinical medicine]. / Frantsisk Sil'vii (1614­1672) i ego vklad v neiroanatomiyu i klinicheskuyu meditsinu.

The article is dedicated to the 350th anniversary of the death of the Dutch anatomist, physiologist, yatrochemist and the greatest physician of the XVII century, Franciscus Sylvius (Franz de le Boe) (1614-1672). His contribution to the study of the structure of the nervous system is characterized, as well as the main scientific discoveries and achievements in building a rational system of medical science and practice. It is stated that eponym «aquaeductus Sylvii¼ was coined by Lorenz Heister in 1717 in his paper «De admiranda cerebelli structura¼.

[Morphological features of jaw osteonecroses in injectable drug abuse]. / Morfologicheskie osobennosti osteonekroza chelyustei pri in"ektsionnoi narkomanii.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the characteristic features in the structure of jaw bone sections in patients with jaw osteonecrosis caused by the use of homemade methamphetamine (HM) synthesized by the Nagai method. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The investigation material was jaw sequesters and resected sections in 60 patients, which had been taken during sanitizing surgery for chronic odontogenic osteomyelitis (Group 1, n=30, a comparison group) and jaw osteonecrosis (Group 2, n=30). All the patients in Group 2 confirmed that they had been using HM for at least 2 years. The investigation material was selected only from the patients who had not been found to have congenital or acquired immunodeficiencies or multiple organ failure phenomena. The material was fixed according to the standard procedure; the sections obtained were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and Masson-Goldner. Morphometry used the indicators proposed by the American Society of Bone and Mineral Research Histomorphometry Nomenclature Committee, as well as 6 author parameters. The findings of the investigation were statistically processed using the Statistica 10.0 program (StatSoft, USA) by the nonparametric Mann-Whitney test. RESULTS: The histoarchitectonics of the mandible bone matrix represented a destructured devitalized tissue complex on the mandibular microspecimens taken from a group of patients with chronic odontogenic osteomyelitis of the jaws. The state of the bone matrix was characterized by the atypical rearrangement with the phenomena of sclerosis, the signs of primary aseptic inflammation with toxic vasculopathy and fibrinoid necrosis, as well as those of secondary pyonecrotic inflammation on the mandibular microspecimens taken in the HM group. CONCLUSION: The characteristic morphological pattern of jaw osteonecrotic injuries in persons with HM-induced drug abuse is the simultaneous identification of two types of lesions: a primary lesion as aseptic ossifying osteitis and a secondary lesion as pyonecrotic inflammation. The phenomena of toxic vasculopathy and fibrinoid osteonecrosis can serve as one of the criteria confirming the active regular intake of HM.

[Etymology of terms in anatomy of central nervous system]. / Etimologiya terminov v anatomii tsentral'noi nervnoi sistemy.

We consider the origin of neuroanatomical terms and their formation as such in the history of medicine. Along with the terms originating from common Indo-European roots and reflecting the typical process of metaphorization of trivial objects and phenomena, in this sphere we find semantic calques (one of the types of borrowing) and formations originating from late Latin. The prevailing simple metaphor testifies to the early origin of most terminological units.

[Paul Pierre Broca: his contribution to medicine]. / Pol' P'er Broka i ego vklad v meditsinu.

The article presents the main moments of the biography of the great 19th century anatomist, surgeon and anthropologist Paul Broca (1824-1880). The circumstances of his discovery of the motor center of oral speech, later called in his honor «Broca's area¼, in 1861 are described. His contributions to oncology, anthropology, and public health are briefly presented.

[Modern ideas about bulbourethral glands].

Bulbourethral glands are the accessory glands of the male reproductive system, the leading function of which is associated with ejaculation and includes both the neutralization of the acidic urine residues and environment of the female vagina, and friction reduction during the sexual intercourse. These glands play the role of immune barrier for urogenital infections, and also synthesize important autocrine and paracrine factors for the male urogenital system development. Glands pathologies usually have a subclinical course, however they can also lead to the functional disorders of the human urogenital system. The list of the most common diseases include cuperitis and syringocele. Usually their duration is asymptomatic and they are nearly impossible to diagnose; as a consequence, it is quite difficult to evaluate the real incidence of morbidity and importance of the bulbourethral gland pathology. In recent years, the vast majority of the bulbourethral glands researches are dedicated to the features of X-ray diagnostics and pathology detection, as well as to the description of rare clinical cases. Authors have analyzed the various available scientific data in order to review of morphological, physiological and clinical aspects of the Cowpers glands.

[The medical ethics of Amatus Lusitanus].

The authors of this study discovered in annals of history the "Oath" of the Portuguese physician Amatus Lusitanus (1511-1568) and translated it into Russian for the first time. The mentioned historical document represents a sort of Code of Honor of European physician of XVI century that both took in ethical norms of Hippocrates and determined one's own rules of doctoring. The ethical principles of Amatus are akin Hippocrates' ones and they are in parallel on seven positions. However, the "Oath" of A. Lusitanus also includes other aspects of medical ethics that are completely organic to the very personality of author and distinguish themselves by courage and novelty for its time. To mention reward of physician for one's labor, difficulties and hardships falling on representatives of medical profession, theme of glorification and exaltation of physician and and medical tolerance. Amatus Lusitanus can be considered as a precursor of initiation of tolerance in European medical ethics that he anticipated with his "Oath".

[Contribution of Thomas Willis (1621-1675) to neuroanatomy and clinical neurology (on the 400th anniversary of his birth)]. / Vklad Tomasa Uillisa (1621­1675) v neiroanatomiyu i klinicheskuyu nevrologiyu (k 400-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya).

The article is devoted to the 400th anniversary of the birth of the famous English physician and anatomist Thomas Willis (Willisius), who made an invaluable contribution to the development of neurological science and practice. The authors briefly describe the stages of his life path and characterize his contribution to neuroanatomy and clinical medicine, in particular neurology.

[The history of the discovery of Gasserian ganglion]. / K voprosu ob istorii otkrytiia gasserova uzla.

The article presents in detail the history of the discovery of the trigeminal ganglion in the context to name it Gasserian ganglion. The historical, formal and logical methods of research, along with system analysis were used in the work. An in-depth research of little-known literature sources, which included scientific, publicistic and fiction components, was conducted. The authors for the first time translated into Russian the IV Chapter of Antonius Hirsch's dissertation 'Paris quinti nervorum encephali disquisition anatomica'. This researcher presented the anatomical views of the leading scientists of the time, and their own data on the mechanical properties, features of the topography and preparation of the trigeminal ganglion. The analysis of the literature allowed clearly following the chronology of the discovery of Gasserian ganglion, highlighting the most significant facts of the biography of scientists and recreating the history of anatomy in this area.

[Discoveries of Giulio Cesare Aranzi]. / Otkrytiia Dzhulio Chezare Arantsi.

The article provides a Russian translation of the 19th chapter of the work of Italian anatomist and surgeon Giulio Cesare Aranzi (Julius Caesar Arantius, 1530-1589) 'Observationes anatomicae', which describes his discoveries in the anatomy of the organ of vision: detection of m. levator palpebrae superioris and disproving of the then prevailing statement concerning the origin of external muscles of the eye from the dura mater. The article also gives a brief biography.

[Costanzo Varolio (1543-1575) - a significant personality in the development of neuroanatomy]. / Kostantso Varolio (1543-1575) - znachimaia lichnost' v istorii neiroanatomii.

The biography of outstanding physician and anatomist Costanzo Varolio (1543-1575) is considered. His contribution to the study of the structure of the nervous system is characterized. The authors have translated fragments of his works concerning a method of brain dissection and pons later named in his honor. They point out that eponym 'pons Varolii' had been coined by Thomas Bartholin in his 'Historiarum anatomicarum rariorum centuria' in 1654.

[Lorenzo Bellini (16431704) and his discovery of the renal tubules].

In the article the biography of famous Italian doctor and anatomist Lorenzo Bellini who in his student years described a tubule system in the kidneys is reviewed. An authors translation of fragments of his work "Exercitatio anatomica de structura et usu renum" with the description of the discovery as well as the works of Marcello Malpighi "Opera posthuma", which stated the priority of this discovery to Bellini and not to Bartolomeo Eustachi, is provided. The evaluation of the medical and scientific activities of Bellini by his contemporaries is given.

[The history of discovery of bulbourethral glands].

The article outlines the chronology of the discovery of the bulbourethral glands. Their first image appeared in 1600 in a collection of anatomical tables by Italian anatomist Hieronymus Fabricius of Acquapendente. In the scientific literature, they were first mentioned in one of the editions of "Journal des scavans" in 1684 as discovered by the French surgeon Jean Mry. The first detailed description of the structure, topography and function of these glands was presented in the work of English physician and anatomist William Cowper in 1699.

[Revisiting eponyms of arteries of the brain]. / Ob eponimakh arterii golovnogo mozga.

This article describes the eponymous terms in anatomical nomenclature of the cerebral arteries. There are historical references revealing the etymology of described eponyms, including information about the professional and personal life of doctors and scientists who had first discovered or described particular structure of the cerebral arterial network. Chronology of the discovery of the cerebral arterial circle is described in details. It is shown that some eponymous terms contain the names of several doctors who studied a particular medical issue simultaneously, which is a reflection of the stages of the medical science development and the evidence of the continuity of scientific knowledge.

ARTERIAL EPONYMS IN GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT.

Eponym--name of the disease, certain structure or method after the person who usually first discovered and described them. Eponyms are widely spread in medicine which appeared to be in the area of a great interest for a lot of scientists. They can serve as a reflection of the evolution of the medical knowledge and making up the majority of anatomical terms. The article describes 12 arterial eponyms of the gastrointestinal tract giving a full anatomical description. It also gives an explanation of why and how those structures were named after certain scientists and what contribution they've made into the development of medicine.