Signaling by the tyrosine kinase Yes promotes liver cancer development.

Most patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are diagnosed at a late stage and have few therapeutic options and a poor prognosis. This is due to the lack of clearly defined underlying mechanisms or a dominant oncogene that can be targeted pharmacologically, unlike in other cancer types. Here, we report the identification of a previously uncharacterized oncogenic signaling pathway in HCC that is mediated by the tyrosine kinase Yes. Using genetic and pharmacological interventions in cellular and mouse models of HCC, we showed that Yes activity was necessary for HCC cell proliferation. Transgenic expression of activated Yes in mouse hepatocytes was sufficient to induce liver tumorigenesis. Yes phosphorylated the transcriptional coactivators YAP and TAZ (YAP/TAZ), promoting their nuclear accumulation and transcriptional activity in HCC cells and liver tumors. We also showed that YAP/TAZ were effectors of the Yes-dependent oncogenic transformation of hepatocytes. Src family kinase activation correlated with the tyrosine phosphorylation and nuclear localization of YAP in human HCC and was associated with increased tumor burden in mice. Specifically, high Yes activity predicted shorter overall survival in patients with HCC. Thus, our findings identify Yes as a potential therapeutic target in HCC.

Loss of interleukin-17 receptor D promotes chronic inflammation-associated tumorigenesis.

Interleukin-17 receptor D (IL-17RD), also known as similar expression to Fgf genes (SEF), is proposed to act as a signaling hub that negatively regulates mitogenic signaling pathways, like the ERK1/2 MAP kinase pathway, and innate immune signaling. The expression of IL-17RD is downregulated in certain solid tumors, which has led to the hypothesis that it may exert tumor suppressor functions. However, the role of IL-17RD in tumor biology remains to be studied in vivo. Here, we show that genetic disruption of Il17rd leads to the increased formation of spontaneous tumors in multiple tissues of aging mice. Loss of IL-17RD also promotes tumor development in a model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer, associated with an exacerbated inflammatory response. Colon tumors from IL-17RD-deficient mice are characterized by a strong enrichment in inflammation-related gene signatures, elevated expression of pro-inflammatory tumorigenic cytokines, such as IL-17A and IL-6, and increased STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation. We further show that RNAi depletion of IL-17RD enhances Toll-like receptor and IL-17A signaling in colon adenocarcinoma cells. No change in the proliferation of normal or tumor intestinal epithelial cells was observed upon genetic inactivation of IL-17RD. Our findings establish IL-17RD as a tumor suppressor in mice and suggest that the protein exerts its function mainly by limiting the extent and duration of inflammation.

Reevaluation of the Role of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 3 in Perinatal Survival and Postnatal Growth Using New Genetically Engineered Mouse Models.

The physiological functions of the atypical mitogen-activated protein kinase extracellular signal-regulated kinase 3 (ERK3) remain poorly characterized. Previous analysis of mice with a targeted insertion of the lacZ reporter in the Mapk6 locus (Mapk6lacZ ) showed that inactivation of ERK3 in Mapk6lacZ mice leads to perinatal lethality associated with intrauterine growth restriction, defective lung maturation, and neuromuscular anomalies. To further explore the role of ERK3 in physiology and disease, we generated novel mouse models expressing a catalytically inactive (Mapk6KD ) or conditional (Mapk6Δ ) allele of ERK3. Surprisingly, we found that mice devoid of ERK3 kinase activity or expression survive the perinatal period without any observable lung or neuromuscular phenotype. ERK3 mutant mice reached adulthood, were fertile, and showed no apparent health problem. However, analysis of growth curves revealed that ERK3 kinase activity is necessary for optimal postnatal growth. To gain insight into the genetic basis underlying the discrepancy in phenotypes of different Mapk6 mutant mouse models, we analyzed the regulation of genes flanking the Mapk6 locus by quantitative PCR. We found that the expression of several Mapk6 neighboring genes is deregulated in Mapk6lacZ mice but not in Mapk6KD or Mapk6Δ mutant mice. Our genetic analysis suggests that off-target effects of the targeting construct on local gene expression are responsible for the perinatal lethality phenotype of Mapk6lacZ mutant mice.

Functional Redundancy of ERK1 and ERK2 MAP Kinases during Development.

ERK1 and ERK2 are the effector kinases of the ERK1/2 MAP-kinase signaling pathway, which plays a central role in transducing signals controlling cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Deregulated activity of the ERK1/2 pathway is linked to a group of developmental syndromes and contributes to the pathogenesis of various human diseases. One fundamental question that remains unaddressed is whether ERK1 and ERK2 have evolved unique physiological functions or whether they are used redundantly to reach a threshold of global ERK activity. Here, we show that the extent of development of the mouse placenta and embryo bearing different combinations of Erk1 and Erk2 alleles is strictly correlated with total ERK1/2 activity. We further demonstrate that transgenic expression of ERK1 fully rescues the embryonic and placental developmental defects associated with the loss of ERK2. We conclude that ERK1 and ERK2 exert redundant functions in mouse development.

Loss of Erk3 function in mice leads to intrauterine growth restriction, pulmonary immaturity, and neonatal lethality.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 3 (Erk3) is an atypical member of the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase family. No function has yet been ascribed to this MAP kinase. Here we show that targeted disruption of the Mapk6 gene (encoding Erk3) leads to intrauterine growth restriction, associated with marked pulmonary hypoplasia, and early neonatal death during the first day of life. Around 40% of Erk3(-/-) neonates die within minutes after birth from acute respiratory failure. Erk3-deficient mice have normal lung-branching morphogenesis, but show delayed lung maturation characterized by decreased sacculation, atelectasis, and defective type II pneumocyte differentiation. Interestingly, in utero administration of glucocorticoid promoted fetal lung maturity and rescued differentiation of type II cells, but failed to alter the neonatal lethality. We observed that loss of Erk3 retards intrauterine growth, as reflected by a marked reduction in fetal lung, heart, and liver weights, and by low body weight at birth. Importantly, we found that insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-2 levels are decreased in the serum of Erk3-deficient mice. Our findings reveal a critical role for Erk3 in the establishment of fetal growth potential and pulmonary function in the mouse.