Synaptic refinement of an inhibitory topographic map in the auditory brainstem requires functional Cav1.3 calcium channels.

Synaptic refinement via the elimination of inappropriate synapses and strengthening of appropriate ones is crucially important for the establishment of specific, topographic neural circuits. The mechanisms driving these processes are poorly understood, particularly concerning inhibitory projections. Here, we address the refinement of an inhibitory topographic projection in the auditory brainstem in functional and anatomical mapping studies involving patch-clamp recordings in combination with minimal and maximal stimulation, caged glutamate photolysis, and single axon tracing. We demonstrate a crucial dependency of the refinement on Ca(V)1.3 calcium channels: Ca(V)1.3(-/-) mice displayed virtually no elimination of projections up to hearing onset. Furthermore, strengthening was strongly impaired, in line with a reduced number of axonal boutons. The mediolateral topography was less precise and the shift from a mixed GABA/glycinergic to a purely glycinergic transmission before hearing onset did not occur. Together, our findings provide evidence for a Ca(V)1.3-dependent mechanism through which both inhibitory circuit formation and determination of the neurotransmitter phenotype are achieved.

Cav1.3 calcium channels are required for normal development of the auditory brainstem.

Within the Ca(v)1 family of voltage-gated calcium channels, Ca(v)1.2 and Ca(v)1.3 channels are the predominant subtypes in the brain. Whereas specific functions for each subtype were described in the adult brain, their role in brain development is poorly understood. Here we assess the role of Ca(v)1.3 subunits in the activity-dependent development of the auditory brainstem. We used Ca(v)1.3-deficient (Ca(v)1.3(-/-)) mice because these mice lack cochlea-driven activity that deprives the auditory centers from peripheral input. We found a drastically reduced volume in all auditory brainstem centers (range 25-59%, total 35%), which was manifest before hearing onset. A reduction was not obvious outside the auditory system. The lateral superior olive (LSO) was strikingly malformed in Ca(v)1.3(-/-) mice and had fewer neurons (1/3 less). The remaining LSO neurons displayed normal dendritic trees and received functional glutamatergic input, yet they fired action potentials predominantly with a multiple pattern upon depolarization, in contrast to the single firing pattern prevalent in controls. The latter finding appears to be due to a reduction of dendrototoxin-sensitive potassium conductances, presumably mediated through the K(v)1.2 subtype. Fura2 imaging provided evidence for functional Ca(v)1.3 channels in the LSO of wild-type mice. Our results imply that Ca(v)1.3 channels are indispensable for the development of the central auditory system. We propose that the unique LSO phenotype in Ca(v)1.3(-/-) mice, which hitherto was not described in other hereditary deafness models, is caused by the synergistic contribution of two factors: on-site loss of Ca(v)1.3 channels in the neurons plus lack of peripheral input.

Miniature EPSCs in the lateral superior olive before hearing onset: regional and cell-type-specific differences and heterogeneous neuromodulatory effects of ATP.

Spontaneous activity occurs in the mammalian auditory system prior to hearing onset and is relevant for neuronal differentiation. Growing evidence indicates that miniature events, i.e., action potential-independent synaptic activity, also have some developmental relevance. An intriguing question is whether these events are purely stochastic or rather display specific characteristics. We addressed this question and studied miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) in morphologically defined neurons of the rat lateral superior olive (LSO) during early neonatal life. To do so, whole-cell recordings from neurons in acute slices were combined with Lucifer yellow fillings. mEPSCs were identified by their TTX insensitivity and their blockade by glutamate receptor antagonists. Altogether, 60% of the LSO neurons displayed mEPSCs, and their presence correlated with the cell location and morphology. Their percentage was highest in the medial limb (86%) and lowest in the lateral limb (14%). Seventy-seven percent of the neurons with mEPSCs were bipolar cells, whereas 77% of those without mEPSCs were multipolar cells. The neuromodulator ATP affected the frequency of mEPSCs in 61% of the LSO neurons in a heterogeneous manner: both frequency increases and decreases occurred. These data provide further evidence for the specificity of mEPSCs. Finally, we investigated whether missing cochlear input changes mEPSCs characteristics. Characterizing LSO neurons of Ca(V)1.3(-/-) mice, which lack cochlea-driven nerve activity, we observed higher mEPSC frequencies and peak amplitudes, indicative of a compensatory response to deprivation. Together, our results demonstrate specific, rather than stochastic, characteristics of mEPSCs in the neonatal LSO, in accordance with their potential developmental significance.

Hypothyroidism impairs chloride homeostasis and onset of inhibitory neurotransmission in developing auditory brainstem and hippocampal neurons.

Thyroid hormone (TH) deficiency during perinatal life causes a multitude of functional and morphological deficits in the brain. In rats and mice, TH dependency of neural maturation is particularly evident during the first 1-2 weeks of postnatal development. During the same period, synaptic transmission via the inhibitory transmitters glycine and GABA changes from excitatory depolarizing effects to inhibitory hyperpolarizing ones in most neurons [depolarizing-hyperpolarizing (D/H) shift]. The D/H shift is caused by the activation of the K(+)-Cl(-) co-transporter KCC2 which extrudes Cl(-) from the cytosol, thus generating an inward-directed electrochemical Cl(-) gradient. Here we analyzed whether the D/H shift and, consequently, the onset of inhibitory neurotransmission are influenced by TH. Gramicidin perforated-patch recordings from auditory brainstem neurons of experimentally hypothyroid rats revealed depolarizing glycine effects until postnatal day (P)11, i.e. almost 1 week longer than in control rats, in which the D/H shift occurred at approximately P5-6. Likewise, until P12-13 the equilibrium potential E(Gly) in hypothyroids was more positive than the membrane resting potential. Normal E(Gly) could be restored upon TH substitution in P11-12 hypothyroids. These data demonstrate a disturbed Cl(-) homeostasis following TH deficiency and point to a delayed onset of synaptic inhibition. Interestingly, immunohistochemistry demonstrated an unchanged KCC2 distribution in hypothyroids, implying that TH deficiency did not affect KCC2 gene expression but may have impaired the functional status of KCC2. Hippocampal neurons of hypothyroid P16-17 rats also demonstrated an impaired Cl(-) homeostasis, indicating that TH may have promoted the D/H shift and maturation of synaptic inhibition throughout the brain.

Shift from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing glycine action occurs at different perinatal ages in superior olivary complex nuclei.

The inhibitory transmitters glycine and GABA undergo a developmental shift from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing action (D/H-shift). To analyse this shift in functionally related nuclei of the rat superior olivary complex (SOC), we employed voltage-sensitive dye recordings in auditory brainstem slices. Complementarily, we analysed single neurons in gramicidin perforated-patch recordings. Our results show a differential timing of the D/H-shift in the four SOC nuclei analysed. In the medial superior olive (MSO), the shift occurred at postnatal day (P) 5-9. In the superior paraolivary nucleus (SPN), it occurred between embryonic day (E) 18 and P1. No D/H-shift was observed in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) until P10. This is in line with the finding that most of the patched MNTB neurons displayed glycine-induced depolarizations between P0-9. While no regional differences regarding the D/H-shift were found within the MSO, SPN, and MNTB, we observed such differences in the lateral superior olive (LSO). All LSO regions showed a D/H-shift at P4-5. However, in the high-frequency regions, hyperpolarizations were large already at P6, yet amplitudes of this size were not present until P8 in the low-frequency regions, suggesting a delayed development in the latter regions. Our physiological results demonstrate that D/H-shifts in SOC nuclei are staggered in time and occur over a period of almost two weeks. Membrane-associated immunoreactivity of the Cl- outward transporter KCC2 was found in every SOC nucleus already at times when glycine was still depolarizing. This implies that the mere presence of KCC2 does not correlate with functional Cl- outward transport.

Expression of functional kainate and AMPA receptors in developing lateral superior olive neurons of the rat.

A functional analysis of AMPA and kainate receptors (AMPARs and KARs) in the lateral superior olive (LSO), a major nucleus in the auditory brainstem, has not been performed so far, to our knowledge. Here we investigated the presence and characteristics of such receptors in the rat LSO by means of whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in combination with pharmacology. Current responses evoked by 200 microM AMPA were completely blocked by the specific AMPAR antagonist GYKI 52466 (100 microM). Properties of the AMPAR-mediated currents (latency, activation time constant, and peak amplitude) remained constant between postnatal day 3 (P3) and P10. Current responses evoked by 100 microM KA were not completely blocked by 100 microM GYKI 52466, indicating that the residual component was mediated by KARs. Throughout development, two groups of KAR-mediated currents (fast I(KA) and slow I(KA)) were distinguished because they had significantly different mean activation time constants. Moreover, the mean peak amplitude of fast I(KA) was significantly higher than that of slow I(KA). The differentiation into fast I(KA) and slow I(KA) can be explained by the existence of two groups of LSO neurons displaying different KAR densities, distributions, and/or diverse types with differences in conductance. Application of the specific KAR subunit agonists SYM 2081 (10 microM), ATPA (10 microM), or iodowillardiine (1 microM) evoked currents in almost all cells tested, showing that GluR5 subunits are a component of functional KARs in LSO neurons. Electrical stimulation of ipsilateral input fibers in the presence of KAR antagonists (NS-102 and GAMS), modulators (WGA), or GYKI 52466 revealed the presence of synaptic KARs in LSO neurons.

Expression and function of chloride transporters during development of inhibitory neurotransmission in the auditory brainstem.

Glycine and GABA, the dominant inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS, assume a depolarizing role in early development, leading to increased cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels and action potentials. The effect is thought to be of some significance for maturation. The depolarization is caused by Cl- efflux, and chloride transporters contribute to the phenomenon by raising the intracellular Cl- concentration ([Cl-]i) above equilibrium, thereby generating an outward-directed electrochemical gradient for Cl-. In mature neurons, the [Cl-]i is reduced below equilibrium, thus rendering glycine activity hyperpolarizing. Here, we investigated the temporal expression of the K-Cl cotransporter KCC2 and the Na-K-Cl cotransporter NKCC1 in the lateral superior olive (LSO) of rats and mice. The two cation cotransporters normally extrude and accumulate Cl-, respectively. As evidenced by several methods, KCC2 mRNA was present in LSO neurons during both the depolarizing and hyperpolarizing periods. Western blots confirmed a constant level of KCC2 in the brainstem, and immunohistochemistry showed that the protein is diffusely distributed within neonatal LSO neurons, becoming integrated into the plasma membrane only with increasing age. The glycine reversal potential in KCC2 knock-out mice differed significantly from that determined in wild-type controls at postnatal day 12 (P12) but not at P3, demonstrating that KCC2 is not active in neonates, despite its early presence. NKCC1 mRNA was not detected during the depolarizing phase in the LSO, implying that this transporter does not contribute to the high [Cl-]i. Our results reveal major differences in the development of [Cl-]i regulation mechanisms seen in brainstem versus forebrain regions.

Developmental distribution of the glutamate receptor subunits KA2, GluR6/7, and delta 1/2 in the rat medial nucleus of the trapezoid body. A quantitative image analysis.

The medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) acts as a relay nucleus in the transmission of auditory information from the cochlear nucleus (CN) to the lateral superior olive. Glutamate receptors mediate the excitatory synaptic transmission in the CN-MNTB projection. Here, we used immunohistochemistry to investigate the expression pattern of the kainate receptor subunits KA2 and GluR6/7 and the orphan glutamate receptor subunits delta 1/2 in principal neurons of the rat MNTB during early postnatal development (P2-59). To objectively quantify the intensity of immunoreactivity, images were scanned with a CCD camera and used for gray-value measurements. At all ages analyzed, each of the three antisera produced immunoreactivity in the somata of MNTB principal cells and in the neuropil. KA2 immunoreactivity of somata and neuropil remained nearly constant between P2 and 23. In contrast, the intensity of GluR6/7 immunoreactivity of somata and neuropil increased between P2 and 6, followed by a decrease until P10. Between P10 and 23, GluR6/7 immunoreactivity of neuropil remained nearly constant, whereas it increased in the somata. In both somata and neuropil, the intensity of delta 1/2 immunoreactivity decreased between P2 and 10, reaching a constant, low level by P10. Our results demonstrate the continuous presence of the glutamate receptor subunits KA2, GluR6/7 and delta 1/2 in the developing MNTB, yet quantitative changes occur which may be associated with functional differences.