Natal dispersal of Whooping Cranes in the reintroduced Eastern Migratory Population.

Natal dispersal is a key demographic process for evaluating the population rate of change, especially for long-lived, highly mobile species. This process is largely unknown for reintroduced populations of endangered avian species. We evaluated natal dispersal distances (NDD) for male and female Whooping Cranes (Grus americana) introduced into two locations in central Wisconsin (Necedah National Wildlife Refuge, or NNWR, and the Eastern Rectangle, or ER) using a series of demographic, spatial, and life history-related covariates. Data were analyzed using gamma regression models with a log-link function and compared using Akaike information criterion corrected for small sample sizes (AICc). Whooping Cranes released in the ER dispersed 261% further than those released into NNWR, dispersal distance increased 4% for each additional nesting pair, decreased about 24% for males as compared to females, increased by 21% for inexperienced pairs, and decreased by 3% for each additional year of age. Natal philopatry, habitat availability or suitability, and competition for breeding territories may be influencing observed patterns of NDD. Whooping Cranes released in the ER may exhibit longer NDD due to fragmented habitat or conspecific attraction to established breeding pairs at NNWR. Additionally, sex-biased dispersal may be increasing in this population as there are more individuals from different natal sites forming breeding pairs. As the population grows and continues to disperse, the drivers of NDD patterns may change based on individual or population behavior.

Trends in the occurrence of large Whooping Crane groups during migration in the great plains, USA.

Recent detections of large gatherings of Whooping Cranes suggest that flock sizes may be increasing at some stopover locations during both the spring and fall migrations. We used the public sightings database managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service from 1942 to 2018 to analyze data for long-term trends in group size. We then examined the spatial distribution of large groups to explore potential explanations for these occurrences. The proportion of Whooping Crane groups comprised of 2, 3, and 4-6 individuals showed no trend over time. However, observations of individuals showed a declining trend and groups of 7-9 and ≥10 showed an increasing trend. The frequency of groups observed exceeding 5 and 10 individuals were better predicted by survey year than by Whooping Crane population size suggesting that an increasing population is not the sole driver of large group occurrences. Our results indicate that large groups occur disproportionately within the 50% migration corridor, at staging areas within the first or last 20-30% of the migration path, and near conservation-managed wetlands, particularly within the southern Great Plains. Our results suggest that in addition to population growth, conspecific attraction, location within the migration corridor, and habitat loss may be contributing to large group occurrences. Further research is needed to determine the degree to which these factors influence large Whooping Crane group formation. The gathering of large numbers of Whooping Cranes in a single location presents potential tradeoffs for the species. While increasing group sizes may improve threat detection and avoidance, it comes at a cost of increased disease and mass mortality risk.

The dilemma of pest suppression in the conservation of endangered species.

In the conservation of endangered species, suppression of a population of one native species to benefit another poses challenges. Examples include predator control and nest parasite reduction. Less obvious is the control of blood-feeding arthropods. We conducted a case study of the effect of native black flies (Simulium spp.) on reintroduced Whooping Cranes (Grus americana). Our intent was to provide a science-driven approach for determining the effects of blood-feeding arthropods on endangered vertebrates and identifying optimal management actions for managers faced with competing objectives. A multiyear experiment demonstrated that black flies reduce nest success in cranes by driving incubating birds off their nests. We used a decision-analytic approach to develop creative management alternatives and evaluate trade-offs among competing objectives. We identified 4 management objectives: establish a self-sustaining crane population, improve crane well-being, maintain native black flies as functional components of the ecosystem, and minimize costs. We next identified potential management alternatives: do nothing, suppress black flies, force crane renesting to occur after the activity period of black flies, relocate releases of cranes, suppress black flies and relocate releases, or force crane renesting and relocate releases. We then developed predictions on constructed scales of 0 (worst-performing alternative) to 1 (best-performing alternative) to indicate how alternative actions performed in terms of management objectives. The optimal action depended on the relative importance of each objective to a decision maker. Only relocating releases was a dominated alternative, indicating that it was not optimal regardless of the relative importance of objectives. A rational decision maker could choose any other management alternative we considered. Recognizing that decisions involve trade-offs that must be weighed by decision makers is crucial to identifying alternatives that best balance multiple management objectives. Given uncertainty about the population dynamics of blood-feeding arthropods, an adaptive management approach could offer substantial benefits.

El Dilema de la Eliminación de Plagas en la Conservación de Especies en Peligro Resumen En la conservación de especies en peligro, la eliminación de la población de una especie nativa para beneficiar a otra representa un reto. Los ejemplos incluyen el control de depredadores y la reducción de parásitos de nido. El control de artrópodos hematófagos es menos obvio. Realizamos un estudio de caso sobre el efecto que las moscas negras nativas (Simulium spp.) tienen sobre las grullas trompeteras (Grus americana) reintroducidas. Nuestra intención era proporcionar una estrategia científica para determinar los efectos que tienen los artrópodos hematófagos sobre los vertebrados en peligro de extinción e identificar las acciones de manejo óptimo para los administradores que enfrentan objetivos en competencia. Un experimento multianual demostró que las moscas negras reducen el éxito de anidación de las grullas al ahuyentar a las aves incubadoras de sus nidos. Usamos una estrategia analítica de decisión para desarrollar alternativas creativas de manejo y para evaluar las compensaciones entre los objetivos en competencia. Identificamos cuatro objetivos de manejo: establecer una población autosustentable de grullas, mejorar el bienestar de las grullas, mantener a las moscas negras nativas como componentes funcionales del ecosistema, y minimizar los costos. Después, identificamos las alternativas potenciales de manejo: no realizar acciones, eliminar a las moscas, obligar a que la re-anidación de las grullas ocurra después del periodo de actividad de las moscas, reubicar las liberaciones de las grullas, eliminar a las moscas y reubicar las liberaciones, o forzar la re-anidación de las grullas y reubicar las liberaciones. Finalmente, desarrollamos predicciones sobre escalas construidas de 0 (la alternativa con el peor desempeño) a 1 (la alternativa con el mejor desempeño) para indicar el éxito de las acciones alternativas con respecto a los objetivos de manejo. La acción óptima dependió de la importancia relativa que cada objetivo tenía para un responsable de la conservación. Sólo la reubicación de las liberaciones fue una alternativa dominada, lo que indica que no era óptima a pesar de la importancia relativa de sus objetivos. Un encargado razonable podría entonces elegir de entre cualquier otra de las alternativas de manejo que consideramos. El reconocimiento de las decisiones que involucran compensaciones que deben ser sopesadas por los encargados de la conservación es importante para la identificación de alternativas que balancean de mejor manera los objetivos múltiples del manejo. Dada la incertidumbre sobre las dinámicas poblacionales de los artrópodos hematófagos, una estrategia de manejo adaptativo podría ofrecer beneficios sustanciales.

Experience drives innovation of new migration patterns of whooping cranes in response to global change.

Anthropogenic changes in climate and land use are driving changes in migration patterns of birds worldwide. Spatial changes in migration have been related to long-term temperature trends, but the intrinsic mechanisms by which migratory species adapt to environmental change remain largely unexplored. We show that, for a long-lived social species, older birds with more experience are critical for innovating new migration behaviours. Groups containing older, more experienced individuals establish new overwintering sites closer to the breeding grounds, leading to a rapid population-level shift in migration patterns. Furthermore, these new overwintering sites are in areas where changes in climate have increased temperatures and where food availability from agriculture is high, creating favourable conditions for overwintering. Our results reveal that the age structure of populations is critical for the behavioural mechanisms that allow species to adapt to global change, particularly for long-lived animals, where changes in behaviour can occur faster than evolution.