Empowering therapeutic antibodies with IFN-α for cancer immunotherapy.

Type 1 IFNs stimulate secretion of IP-10 (CXCL10) which is a critical chemokine to recruit effector T cells to the tumor microenvironment and IP-10 knockout mice exhibit a phenotype with compromised effector T cell generation and trafficking. Type 1 IFNs also induce MHC class 1 upregulation on tumor cells which can enhance anti-tumor CD8 T cell effector response in the tumor microenvironment. Although type 1 IFNs show great promise in potentiating anti-tumor immune response, systemic delivery of type 1 IFNs is associated with toxicity thereby limiting clinical application. In this study, we fused tumor targeting antibodies with IFN-α and showed that the fusion proteins can be produced with high yields and purity. IFN fusions selectively induced IP-10 secretion from antigen positive tumor cells, which was critical in recruiting the effector T cells to the tumor microenvironment. Further, we found that treatment with the anti-PDL1-IFN- α fusion at concentrations as low as 1 pM exhibited potent activity in mediating OT1 CD8+ T cell killing against OVA expressing tumor cells, while control IFN fusion did not exhibit any activity at the same concentration. Furthermore, the IFN-α fusion antibody was well tolerated in vivo and demonstrated anti-tumor efficacy in an anti-PD-L1 resistant syngeneic mouse tumor model. One of the potential mechanisms for the enhanced CD8 T cell killing by anti-PD-L1 IFN fusion was up-regulation of MHC class I/tumor antigen complex. Our data supports the hypothesis of targeting type 1 IFN to the tumor microenvironment may enhance effector T cell functions for anti-tumor immune response.

Iniparib nonselectively modifies cysteine-containing proteins in tumor cells and is not a bona fide PARP inhibitor.

PURPOSE: PARP inhibitors are being developed as therapeutic agents for cancer. More than six compounds have entered clinical trials. The majority of these compounds are ß-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+))-competitive inhibitors. One exception is iniparib, which has been proposed to be a noncompetitive PARP inhibitor. In this study, we compare the biologic activities of two different structural classes of NAD(+)-competitive compounds with iniparib and its C-nitroso metabolite. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Two chemical series of NAD(+)-competitive PARP inhibitors, iniparib and its C-nitroso metabolite, were analyzed in enzymatic and cellular assays. Viability assays were carried out in MDA-MB-436 (BRCA1-deficient) and DLD1(-/-) (BRCA2-deficient) cells together with BRCA-proficient MDA-MB-231 and DLD1(+/+) cells. Capan-1 and B16F10 xenograft models were used to compare iniparib and veliparib in vivo. Mass spectrometry and the (3)H-labeling method were used to monitor the covalent modification of proteins. RESULTS: All NAD(+)-competitive inhibitors show robust activity in a PARP cellular assay, strongly potentiate the activity of temozolomide, and elicit robust cell killing in BRCA-deficient tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. Cell killing was associated with an induction of DNA damage. In contrast, neither iniparib nor its C-nitroso metabolite inhibited PARP enzymatic or cellular activity, potentiated temozolomide, or showed activity in a BRCA-deficient setting. We find that the nitroso metabolite of iniparib forms adducts with many cysteine-containing proteins. Furthermore, both iniparib and its nitroso metabolite form protein adducts nonspecifically in tumor cells. CONCLUSIONS: Iniparib nonselectively modifies cysteine-containing proteins in tumor cells, and the primary mechanism of action for iniparib is likely not via inhibition of PARP activity.

Ligand association rates to the inner-variable-domain of a dual-variable-domain immunoglobulin are significantly impacted by linker design.

The DVD-Ig (TM) protein is a dual-specific immunoglobulin. Each of the two arms of the molecule contains two variable domains, an inner variable domain and an outer variable domain linked in tandem, each with binding specificity for different targets or epitopes. One area of on-going research involves determining how the proximity of the outer variable domain affects the binding of ligands to the inner variable domain. To explore this area, we prepared a series of DVD-Ig proteins with binding specificities toward TNFα and an alternate therapeutic target. Kinetic measurements of TNFα binding to this series of DVD-Ig proteins were used to probe the effects of variable domain position and linker design on ligand on- and off-rates. We found that affinities for TNFα are generally lower when binding to the inner domain than to the outer domain and that this loss of affinity is primarily due to reduced association rate. This effect could be mitigated, to some degree, by linker design. We show several linker sequences that mitigate inner domain affinity losses in this series of DVD-Ig proteins. Moreover, we show that single chain proteolytic cleavage between the inner and outer domains, or complete outer domain removal, can largely restore inner domain TNFα affinity to that approaching the reference antibody. Taken together, these results suggest that a loss of affinity for inner variable domains in this set of DVD-Ig proteins may be largely driven by simple steric hindrance effects and can be reduced by careful linker design.

Discovery of a potent and selective Bcl-2 inhibitor using SAR by NMR.

The Bcl-2 family of proteins plays a major role in the regulation of apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Overexpression of the anti-apoptotic members of this family (Bcl-2, Bcl-x(L), and Mcl-1) can render cancer cells resistant to chemotherapeutic agents and therefore these proteins are important targets for the development of new anti-cancer agents. Here we describe the discovery of a potent, highly selective, Bcl-2 inhibitor using SAR by NMR and structure-based drug design which could serve as a starting point for the development of a Bcl-2 selective anti-cancer agent. Such an agent would potentially overcome the Bcl-x(L) mediated thrombocytopenia observed with ABT-263.

Toxicological evaluation of thiol-reactive compounds identified using a la assay to detect reactive molecules by nuclear magnetic resonance.

We have recently reported on the development of a La assay to detect reactive molecules by nuclear magnetic resonance (ALARM NMR) to detect reactive false positive hits from high-throughput screening, in which we observed a surprisingly large number of compounds that can oxidize or form covalent adducts with protein thiols groups. In the vast majority of these cases, the covalent interactions are largely nonspecific (e.g., affect many protein targets) and therefore unsuitable for drug development. However, certain thiol-reactive species do appear to inhibit the target of interest in a specific manner. The question then arises as to the potential toxicology risks of developing a drug that can react with protein thiol groups. Here, we report on the evaluation of a large set of ALARM-reactive and -nonreactive compounds against a panel of additional proteins (aldehyde dehydrogenase, superoxide dismutase, and three cytochrome P450 enzymes). It was observed that ALARM-reactive compounds have significantly increased risks of interacting with one or more of these enzymes in vitro. Thus, ALARM NMR seems to be a sensitive tool to rapidly identify compounds with an enhanced risk of producing side effects in humans, including alcohol intolerance, the formation of reactive oxygen species, and drug-drug interactions. In conjunction with other toxicology assays, ALARM NMR should be a valuable tool for prioritizing compounds for lead optimization and animal testing.

Discovery and design of novel HSP90 inhibitors using multiple fragment-based design strategies.

The molecular chaperone HSP90 has been shown to facilitate cancer cell survival by stabilizing key proteins responsible for a malignant phenotype. We report here the results of parallel fragment-based drug design approaches in the design of novel HSP90 inhibitors. Initial aminopyrimidine leads were elaborated using high-throughput organic synthesis to yield nanomolar inhibitors of the enzyme. Second site leads were also identified which bound to HSP90 in two distinct conformations, an 'open' and 'closed' form. Intriguingly, linked fragment approaches targeting both of these conformations were successful in producing novel, micromolar inhibitors. Overall, this study shows that, with only a few fragment hits, multiple lead series can be generated for HSP90 due to the inherent flexibility of the active site. Thus, ample opportunities exist to use these lead series in the development of clinically useful HSP90 inhibitors for the treatment of cancers.

A highly potent and selective farnesyltransferase inhibitor ABT-100 in preclinical studies.

Ras mutation has been detected in approximately 20-30% of all human carcinomas, primarily in pancreatic, colorectal, lung and bladder carcinomas. The indirect inhibition of Ras activity by inhibiting farnesyltransferase (FTase) function is one therapeutic intervention to control tumor growth. Here we report the preclinical anti-tumor activity of our most advanced FTase inhibitor (FTI), ABT-100, and a direct comparison with the current clinical candidates. ABT-100 is a highly selective, potent and orally bioavailable FTI. It broadly inhibits the growth of solid tumors in preclinical animal models. Thus, ABT-100 is an attractive candidate for further clinical evaluation. In addition, our results provide plausible insights to explain the impressive potency and selectivity of ABT-100. Finally, we have demonstrated that ABT-100 significantly suppresses the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNA and secretion of VEGF protein, as well as inhibiting angiogenesis in the animal model.

Characterization of the anti-apoptotic mechanism of Bcl-B.

Bcl-B protein is an anti-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family protein that contains all the four BH (Bcl-2 homology) domains (BH1, BH2, BH3 and BH4) and a predicted C-terminal transmembrane domain. Our previous results showed that Bcl-B binds Bax and suppresses apoptosis induced by over-expression of Bax; however, Bcl-B does not bind or suppress Bak. To explore the molecular basis for the differential binding and suppression of Bax and Bak, we studied the BH3 dimerization domains of Bax and Bak. Chimeric mutants of Bax and Bak were generated that swapped the BH3 domains of these pro-apoptotic proteins. Bcl-B associated with and blocked apoptosis induced by mutant Bak containing the BH3 domain of Bax, but not mutant Bax containing the BH3 domain of Bak. In contrast, Bcl-X(L) protein bound and suppressed apoptosis induction by Bax, Bak and both BH3-domain chimeras. A strong correlation between binding and apoptosis suppression was also obtained using a series of alanine substitutions spanning the length of the Bax BH3 domain to identify critical residues for Bcl-B binding. Conversely, using structure-based modelling to design mutations in the BH3-binding pocket of Bcl-B, we produced two Bcl-B mutants (Leu86-->Ala and Arg96-->Gln) that failed to bind Bax and that also were unable to suppress apoptosis induced by Bax over-expression. In contrast, other Bcl-B mutants that still bound Bax retained protective activity against Bax-induced cell death, thus serving as a control. We conclude that, in contrast with some other anti-apoptotic Bcl-2-family proteins, a strong correlation exists for Bcl-B between binding to pro-apoptotic multidomain Bcl-2 family proteins and functional apoptosis suppression.