SMNrp is an essential pre-mRNA splicing factor required for the formation of the mature spliceosome.

SMNrp, also termed SPF30, has recently been identified in spliceosomes assembled in vitro. We have functionally characterized this protein and show that it is an essential splicing factor. We show that SMNrp is a 17S U2 snRNP-associated protein that appears in the pre-spliceosome (complex A) and the mature spliceosome (complex B) during splicing. Immunodepletion of SMNrp from nuclear extract inhibits the first step of pre-mRNA splicing by preventing the formation of complex B. Re-addition of recombinant SMNrp to immunodepleted extract reconstitutes both spliceosome formation and splicing. Mutations in two domains of SMNrp, although similarly deleterious for splicing, differed in their consequences on U2 snRNP binding, suggesting that SMNrp may also engage in interactions with splicing factors other than the U2 snRNP. In agreement with this, we present evidence for an additional interaction between SMNrp and the [U4/U6.U5] tri-snRNP. A candidate that may mediate this interaction, namely the U4/U6-90 kDa protein, has been identified. We suggest that SMNrp, as a U2 snRNP-associated protein, facilitates the recruitment of the [U4/U6.U5] tri-snRNP to the pre-spliceosome.

Evidence that fragile X mental retardation protein is a negative regulator of translation.

Fragile X syndrome is a common form of inherited mental retardation. Most fragile X patients exhibit mutations in the fragile X mental retardation gene 1 (FMR1) that lead to transcriptional silencing and hence to the absence of the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). Since FMRP is an RNA-binding protein which associates with polyribosomes, it had been proposed to function as a regulator of gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. In the present study, we show that FMRP strongly inhibits translation of various mRNAs at nanomolar concentrations in both rabbit reticulocyte lysate and microinjected Xenopus laevis oocytes. This effect is specific for FMRP, since other proteins with similar RNA-binding domains, including the autosomal homologues of FMRP, FXR1 and FXR2, failed to suppress translation in the same concentration range. Strikingly, a disease-causing Ile-->Asn substitution at amino acid position 304 (I304N) renders FMRP incapable of interfering with translation in both test systems. Initial studies addressing the underlying mechanism of inhibition suggest that FMRP inhibits the assembly of 80S ribosomes on the target mRNAs. The failure of FMRP I304N to suppress translation is not due to its reduced affinity for mRNA or its interacting proteins FXR1 and FXR2. Instead, the I304N point mutation severely impairs homo-oligomerization of FMRP. Our data support the notion that inhibition of translation may be a function of FMRP in vivo. We further suggest that the failure of FMRP to oligomerize, caused by the I304N mutation, may contribute to the pathophysiological events leading to fragile X syndrome.

Characterization of a nuclear 20S complex containing the survival of motor neurons (SMN) protein and a specific subset of spliceosomal Sm proteins.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative disease of motor neurons caused by reduced levels of functional survival of motor neurons (SMN) protein. Cytoplasmic SMN directly interacts with spliceosomal Sm proteins and facilitates their assembly onto U snRNAs. Nuclear SMN, in contrast, mediates recycling of pre-mRNA splicing factors. In this study, we have addressed the function of SMN in the nucleus. We show that a monoclonal antibody directed against SMN inhibits pre-mRNA splicing. Interestingly, the mode of inhibition suggests a novel role for SMN in splicing that occurs prior to, or in addition to, its role in recycling. Using biochemical fractionation and anti-SMN immunoaffinity chromatography, we identified two distinct nuclear SMN complexes termed NSC1 and NSC2. The biochemical properties and protein composition of NSC1 were determined in detail. NSC1 migrates in sucrose gradients as a U snRNA-free 20S complex containing at least 10 proteins. In addition to SMN, these include the SMN-interacting protein 1 (SIP-1), the putative helicase dp103/Gemin3, the novel dp103/Gemin3-interacting protein GIP1/Gemin4 and three additional proteins with apparent masses of 43, 33 and 18 kDa, respectively. Most surprisingly, NSC1 also contains a specific subset of spliceosomal Sm proteins. This shows that the SMN-Sm protein interaction is not restricted to the cytoplasm. Our data imply that nuclear SMN affects splicing by modulating the Sm protein composition of U snRNPs.

The mammalian homologue of Prp16p is overexpressed in a cell line tolerant to Leflunomide, a new immunoregulatory drug effective against rheumatoid arthritis.

Prp2p, Prp16p, Prp22p, and Prp43p are members of the DEAH-box family of ATP-dependent putative RNA helicases required for pre-mRNA splicing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Recently, mammalian homologues of Prp43p and Prp22p have been described, supporting the idea that splicing in yeast and man is phylogenetically conserved. In this study, we show that a murine cell line resistant to the novel immunoregulatory drug Leflunomide (Arava) overexpresses a 135-kDa protein that is a putative DEAH-box RNA helicase. We have cloned the human counterpart of this protein and show that it shares pronounced sequence homology with Prp16p. Apart from its N-terminal domain, which is rich in RS, RD, and RE dipeptides, this human homologue of Prp16p (designated hPrp16p) is 41% identical to Prp16p. Significantly, homology is not only observed within the phylogenetically conserved helicase domain, but also in Prp16p-specific sequences. Immunofluorescence microscopy studies demonstrated that hPrp16p co-localizes with snRNPs in subnuclear structures referred to as speckles. Antibodies specific for hPrp16p inhibited pre-mRNA splicing in vitro prior to the second step. Thus, like its yeast counterpart, hPrp16p also appears to be required for the second catalytic step of splicing. Taken together, our data indicate that the human 135-kDa protein identified here is the structural and functional homologue of the yeast putative RNA helicase, Prp16p.

The human U5-200kD DEXH-box protein unwinds U4/U6 RNA duplices in vitro.

Splicing of nuclear precursors of mRNA (pre-mRNA) involves dynamic interactions between the RNA constituents of the spliceosome. The rearrangement of RNA-RNA interactions, such as the unwinding of the U4/U6 duplex, is believed to be driven by ATP-dependent RNA helicases. We recently have shown that spliceosomal U5 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) from HeLa cells contain two proteins, U5-200kD and U5-100kD, which share homology with the DEAD/DEXH-box families of RNA helicases. Here we demonstrate that purified U5 snRNPs exhibit ATP-dependent unwinding of U4/U6 RNA duplices in vitro. To identify the protein responsible for this activity, U5 snRNPs were depleted of a subset of proteins under high salt concentrations and assayed for RNA unwinding. The activity was retained in U5 snRNPs that contain the U5-200kD protein but lack U5-100kD, suggesting that the U5-200kD protein could mediate U4/U6 duplex unwinding. Finally, U5-200kD was purified to homogeneity by glycerol gradient centrifugation of U5 snRNP proteins in the presence of sodium thiocyanate, followed by ion exchange chromatography. The RNA unwinding activity was found to reside exclusively with the U5-200kD DEXH-box protein. Our data raise the interesting possibility that this RNA helicase catalyzes unwinding of the U4/U6 RNA duplex in the spliceosome.

Crosslinking of the U5 snRNP-specific 116-kDa protein to RNA hairpins that block step 2 of splicing.

Step 2 of pre-mRNA splicing has characteristics that are suggestive of a 5' to 3' scanning process from the branch point to locate the 3' splice site. Specifically, the 3' splice site is almost always at the first AG downstream of the branch point even when the two elements are separated by hundreds of nucleotides. Insertion of new AGs between the branch and 3' splice site, or mutation of the wild-type 3' splice site, usually results in use of the new first AG as the 3' splice site. Finally, insertion of stable secondary structure between the branch point and 3' splice site, but distant from both elements, results in a block to step 2. We have sought to complement this circumstantial evidence by detecting physical contacts between the spliceosome and the RNA substrate in regions that are not themselves important for splicing, other than that they lie between the branch point/polypyrimidine tract and the 3' splice site. We have blocked step 2 of splicing by insertion of hairpin structures between the branch point and 3' splice site and applied methylene blue-mediated crosslinking, which is specific for protein-dsRNA interactions. Using this approach, we have detected a 116-kDa crosslinked protein that appears after step 1 of splicing with all transcripts containing a hairpin downstream of the branch point. The protein was identified as the 116-kDa U5 snRNP protein, which is a GTP-binding protein involved in step 2 of splicing. The crosslinking characteristics of U5 p116 are consistent with it having a role in locating the 3' splice site AG prior to step 2 of splicing.

An evolutionarily conserved U5 snRNP-specific protein is a GTP-binding factor closely related to the ribosomal translocase EF-2.

The driving forces behind the many RNA conformational changes occurring in the spliceosome are not well understood. Here we characterize an evolutionarily conserved human U5 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) protein (U5-116kD) that is strikingly homologous to the ribosomal elongation factor EF-2 (ribosomal translocase). A 114 kDa protein (Snu114p) homologous to U5-116kD was identified in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and was shown to be essential for yeast cell viability. Genetic depletion of Snu114p results in accumulation of unspliced pre-mRNA, indicating that Snu114p is essential for splicing in vivo. Antibodies specific for U5-116kD inhibit pre-mRNA splicing in a HeLa nuclear extract in vitro. In HeLa cells, U5-116kD is located in the nucleus and colocalizes with snRNP-containing subnuclear structures referred to as speckles. The G domain of U5-116kD/Snu114p contains the consensus sequence elements G1-G5 important for binding and hydrolyzing GTP. Consistent with this, U5-116kD can be cross-linked specifically to GTP by UV irradiation of U5 snRNPs. Moreover, a single amino acid substitution in the G1 sequence motif of Snu114p, expected to abolish GTP-binding activity, is lethal, suggesting that GTP binding and probably GTP hydrolysis is important for the function of U5-116kD/Snu114p. This is to date the first evidence that a G domain-containing protein plays an essential role in the pre-mRNA splicing process.

Identification of an RNA-dependent ATPase activity in mammalian U5 snRNPs.

Nuclear pre-mRNA splicing requires ATP at several steps from spliceosome assembly to product release. Here, we demonstrate that an integral component of the 20S U5 snRNP is an RNA-dependent ATPase. The ATPase activity of 20S U5 and 25S [U4/U6.U5] snRNPs purified by glycerol gradient centrifugation is strongly stimulated by homopolymeric RNA but not ssDNA. Purified 12S Ul and U2 snRNPs do not exhibit ATPase activity. Moreover, the U5-associated NTPase specifically hydrolyzes ATP and dATP. The additional purification of 20S U5 snRNPs by Mono Q chromatography does not affect the efficiency of ATP hydrolysis. Both U5 and tri-snRNPs bind ATP stoichiometrically in an RNA-independent manner. A candidate ATPase was identified by UV-irradiation of purified snRNPs with radiolabeled ATP. In the presence of homopolymeric RNA, the 200 kDa U5-specific protein is the major crosslinked protein, even in Mono Q-purified U5 snRNPs. The correlation between RNA-dependent ATPase activity in the U5 snRNP and the RNA-dependent onset of this crosslink strongly suggests that the 200 kDa protein is an RNA-dependent ATPase. Furthermore, both the formation of the crosslink and ATPase activity appear with a similar substrate specificity for ATP.

Two major tertiary folding transitions of the Tetrahymena catalytic RNA.

The L-21 Tetrahymena ribozyme, an RNA molecule with sequence-specific endoribonuclease activity derived from a self-splicing group I intron, provides a model system for studying the RNA folding problem. A 160 nucleotide, independently folding domain of tertiary structure (the P4-P6 domain) comprises about half of the ribozyme. We now apply Fe(II)-EDTA cleavage to mutants of the ribozyme to explore the role of individual structural elements in tertiary folding of the RNA at equilibrium. Deletion of peripheral elements near the 3' end of the ribozyme destabilizes a region of the catalytic core (P3-P7) without altering the folding of the P4-P6 domain. Three different mutations within the P4-P6 domain that destabilize its folding also shift the folding of the P3-P7 region of the catalytic core to higher MgCl2 concentrations. We conclude that the role of the extended P4-P6 domain and of the 3'-terminal peripheral elements is at least in part to stabilize the catalytic core. The organization of RNA into independently folding domains of tertiary structure may be common in large RNAs, including ribosomal RNAs. Furthermore, the observation of domain-domain interactions in a catalytic RNA supports the feasibility of a primitive spliceosome without any proteins.