Is Parental Attachment Security Contextual? Exploring Context-Specific Child-Parent Attachment Patterns and Psychological Well-Being in Taiwanese Youths.

Scant research to date has explored the possibility of context-specific variation in attachment security within a given relationship. In this paper, two cross-sectional studies were designed (1) to develop and validate context-specific attachment scales in Traditional-Chinese and (2) to explore variations in attachment security within a given parental relationship but between the contexts of sport and academics, relating them to global attachment patterns and indicators of psychological well-being. Results indicated that Taiwanese youth can and do perceive contextual variation within a given parental relationship. However, the relationship between such contextual variation and psychological outcomes was complex. Contextual variation may be a meaningful and useful way to explore and think about within-parent attachment fluctuation.

A Critical Exploration of Child-Parent Attachment as a Contextual Construct.

Bowlby's attachment theory has been employed as a broad and integrative framework to explore human wellness across a range of disciplines. Attachment theory has even been labelled one of the last surviving "grand theories" not to have been completely dismissed, replaced, or extensively reworked. However, despite the ubiquitous nature of some of the theory's fundamental tenets, there are always possibilities for new conceptual development, extension, and revision. In this paper, we critically explore the idea of "context-specific" attachment within parent-child relationships. We briefly outline critical assumptions and key areas of attachment and articulate potential rationale, conceptualization, and relevance of contextual attachment.

Genistein, a competitive PDE1-4 inhibitor, may bind on high-affinity rolipram binding sites of brain cell membranes and then induce gastrointestinal adverse effects.

The affinities of genistein on phosphodiesterase (PDE)1-4 and cause of gastrointestinal adverse effects of genistein remain unclear. Female BALB/c mice were actively sensitized by intraperitoneal injections of ovalbumin and challenged by aerosolized ovalbumin (1%). After secondary challenge, aerosolized methacholine (6.25-50mg/ml) induced increases of enhanced pause (P(enh)) values in conscious mice in a concentration-dependent manner. Genistein (30-100 micromol/kg, i.p.) markedly inhibited methacholine (12.5-50mg/ml)-induced increase of P(enh) value in the sensitized and challenged mice. In addition, genistein significantly reduced total inflammatory cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, with the exception that lymphocytes and neutrophils were not significantly inhibited by genistein at the lowest dose (10 micromol/kg). Genistein also markedly attenuated the release of cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-5, interferon (IFN)-gamma and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Genistein competitively inhibited PDE1-4, with a K(i) value ranging from 4.3 to 13.7 microM. Genistein (3-300 microM) concentration-dependently displaced 2nM [(3)H]-rolipram bound on high-affinity rolipram binding sites of brain cell membranes. The therapeutic ratio of genistein was calculated to be 7.9. Genistein (100 micromol/kg, s.c.) significantly shortened xylazine/ketamine-induced anesthesia, suggesting that genistein administered at a higher dose may have gastrointestinal adverse effects. In conclusion, owing to the low therapeutic ratio of genistein, the gastrointestinal adverse effects may be induced via the binding of genistein on high-affinity rolipram binding sites of brain cell membranes, when it is used for a long term or at higher doses for treating allergies, asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on phosphodiesterase isozymes from guinea pig and their structure-activity relationships.

The structure-activity relationships of flavonoids with regard to their inhibitory effects on phosphodiesterase (PDE) isozymes are little known. The activities of PDE1-5 were measured by a two-step procedure using cAMP with [(3)H]-cAMP or cGMP with [(3)H]-cGMP as substrates. In the present results, PDE1, 5, 2, and 4 isozymes were partially purified from guinea pig lungs in that order, and PDE3 was from the heart. The IC(50) values of PDE1-5 were greater than those reported previously for the reference drugs, vinpocetin, EHNA, milrinone, Ro 20-1724, and zaprinast, by 5-, 5-, 7-, 5-, and 3-fold, respectively. As shown in Table 2, luteolin revealed non-selective inhibition of PDE1-5 with IC(50) values in a range of 10-20 microM, as did genistein except with a low potency on PDE5. Daidzein, an inactive analogue of genistein in tyrosine kinase inhibition, showed selective inhibition of PDE3 with an IC(50) value of around 30 microM, as did eriodictyol with an IC(50) value of around 50 microM. Hesperetin and prunetin exhibited more-selective inhibition of PDE4 with IC(50) values of around 30 and 60 microM, respectively. Luteolin-7-glucoside exhibited dual inhibition of PDE2/PDE4 with an IC(50) value of around 40 microM. Diosmetin more-selectively inhibited PDE2 (IC(50) of 4.8 microM) than PDE1, PDE4, or PDE5. However, biochanin A more-selectively inhibited PDE4 (IC(50) of 8.5 microM) than PDE1 or PDE2. Apigenin inhibited PDE1-3 with IC(50) values of around 10-25 microM. Myricetin inhibited PDE1-4 with IC(50) values of around 10-40 microM. The same was true for quercetin, but we rather consider that it more-selectively inhibited PDE3 and PDE4 (IC(50) of < 10 microM). In conclusion, it is possible to synthesize useful drugs through elucidating the structure-activity relationships of flavonoids with respect to inhibition of PDE isozymes at concentrations used in this in vitro study.

Suppressive effects of 3-O-methylquercetin on ovalbumin-induced airway hyperresponsiveness.

Rhamnus nakaharai Hayata (Rhamnaceae) has been used as a folk medicine in Taiwan for treating constipation, inflammation, tumors, and asthma. 3-O-Methylquercetin (3-MQ), a main constituent of the plant, has been reported to inhibit total cAMP- and cGMP-phosphodiesterase (PDE) of guinea pig trachealis at low concentrations. 3-MQ has been also reported to more selectively inhibit PDE3 than PDE4 with a low K(m) value. Therefore we were interested in investigating its suppressive effects on ovalbumin (OVA)-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in vivo and in vitro. 3-MQ (3-30 micromol/kg, i. p.) significantly suppressed the enhanced pause (Penh) value induced by aerosolized methacholine (50 mg/mL) in sensitized mice after secondary allergen challenge. 3-MQ (3-30 micromol/kg, i. p.) also significantly suppressed total inflammatory cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils, but not lymphocytes. In addition, 3-MQ (3 micromol/kg, i. p.) significantly decreased the secretion of TNF-alpha, and at the highest dose (30 micromol/kg, i. p.) even decreased the secretions of IL-4, IL-5, and TNF-alpha. 3-MQ (1-10 microM) as well as Ro 20-1724 (3-30 microM), a selective PDE4 inhibitor, significantly attenuated OVA (100 microg/mL)-induced contractions. 3-MQ (30 microM) as well as milrinone (1-10 microM), a selective PDE3 inhibitor, significantly enhanced baseline contractions in isolated guinea pig left and right atria. However, neither 3-MQ nor milrinone significantly affected baseline beating rate in the right atria. 3-MQ (3-30 micromol/kg, i. p.) did not significantly affect systolic pressure in conscious mice. In conclusion, 3-MQ has both anti-inflammatory and bronchodilating effects, and has the potential for use in the treatment of asthma at a dose without affecting blood pressure.

3-O-methylquercetin more selectively inhibits phosphodiesterase subtype 3.

Rhamnus nakaharai Hayata (Rhamnaceae), has been used as a folk medicine in Taiwan for treating constipation, inflammation, tumors and asthma. 3-O-methylquercetin (3-MQ), a main constituent of the plant, has been reported to inhibit total cAMP- and cGMP-phosphodiesterase (PDE) of guinea pig trachealis. Therefore we were interested in investigating the inhibitory effect of 3-MQ on various PDE isozymes from guinea pig lungs and hearts. Isolated guinea pig lungs and hearts were homogenized and centrifuged. The supernatant was chromatographed over a column of Q-sepharose, and eluted with various concentrations of NaCl. In the following order, PDE subtypes 1, 5, 2, 4 from lungs, and 3 from hearts were separated. The IC 50 values of 3-MQ on these isozymes were 31.9, 86.9, 18.6, 28.5 and 1.6 microM, respectively. 3-MQ (10-100 microM) non-competitively inhibited PDE2, but competitively inhibited PDE4. 3-MQ (1-10 microM) also competitively inhibited PDE3. However, 3-MQ (10-100 microM) did not competitively inhibit PDE1 and 5, although it had a tendency to competitively inhibit PDE1 at concentrations of 10 - 30 microM. The present results showed that K i value of 3-MQ was similar to that of milrinone in PDE3, and was not significantly different from that of Ro 20 - 1724 in PDE4, respectively. In conclusion, 3-MQ was revealed to be a selective and competitive PDE3/PDE4 inhibitor, although its inhibitory effect on PDE4 was not potent. Therefore, 3-MQ may have a potential in the treatment of asthma beside its antiviral activity.