Sociomoral Reasoning Skills during Childhood: A Comprehensive and Predictive Approach.

Sociomoral reasoning (SMR) is an essential component of social functioning allowing children to establish judgments based on moral criteria. The progressive emergence and complexification of SMR during childhood is thought to be underpinned by a range of characteristics and abilities present in the preschool years. Past studies have mostly examined concurrent associations between individual factors and SMR. Using a more comprehensive and predictive approach to identify early predictors of school-age SMR would contribute to a more complete picture of SMR development. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of four domains of preschool predictors to SMR at school-age: demographic (age, sex, parental education), cognitive (executive and sociocognitive functions), behavioral (internalizing and externalizing behaviors), and familial (parent-child interactions, parental stress) factors. Parents of 122 children 3 to 5 years (M = 3.70, SD = 0.66 years, 51% girls) completed questionnaires and children were administered executive and sociocognitive tasks. Parent-child interactions were assessed using an observational approach. SMR was measured four years later using the SoMoral task. A four-step hierarchical regression analysis revealed that executive functions and internalizing problems were significant independent predictors of SMR. These findings provide a more comprehensive understanding of the early precursors of SMR during childhood.

Quality of life 6 and 18 months after mild traumatic brain injury in early childhood: An exploratory study of the role of genetic, environmental, injury, and child factors.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) in early childhood is prevalent, and some children may be at risk for short- and long-term difficulties that could affect quality of life (QoL). Despite growing efforts to understand associations between potential risk factors and outcomes after injury, prognosis is elusive and lacks the inclusion of genetic variables which may convey additional predictive power. This study assessed which factors contribute to pediatric QoL 6 and 18 months post-recruitment in 159 participants (mTBI = 52; orthopedic injury [OI] = 43; typically developing controls [TDC] = 64) aged 18 to 60 months at the time of injury (M = 37.50, SD = 11.69). Family environment, injury characteristics, and child cognitive-behavioral functioning were assessed at 6 months via parent questionnaires and socio-cognitive assessment. QoL was determined using the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory at both time points. Genetic information (Brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF] genotype) was collected using saliva samples. Hierarchical regression analyses testing biological, family-environmental, injury and cognitive-behavioral factors revealed that the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism was a significant independent predictor of better QoL 6 months post-injury in the mTBI group. Lower parental distress significantly and independently predicted higher QoL 18 months after mTBI, and 6 months post-recruitment in the TDC group. At 18 months, models were non-significant for both control groups. Genetic factors involved in neuroplasticity may play an important role in recovery 6 months after mTBI and contribute to outcome via their interplay with environmental factors. Over time, family factors appear to become the primary determinants of post-mTBI outcome.

Factors contributing to parent-child interaction quality following mild traumatic brain injury in early childhood.

There is emerging evidence that parent-child interactions are affected by early childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI). These findings are of functional importance when considering the high prevalence of TBI in early childhood alongside evidence that young children exposed to positive relationships with their parents early in life exhibit better social functioning concurrently and longitudinally. Given that the overall quality of parent-child interactions is the result of both parent and child emotional and behavioural dispositions, it remains unclear which parental or child-related factors contribute to the quality of interactions post-TBI. The aim of this study was to investigate the factors that contribute to the quality of parent-child interactions following early childhood TBI. The sample included 68 children (18-60 months at recruitment) with accidental, uncomplicated mild TBI (mTBI). The quality of parent-child interactions was assessed 6 months post-injury using the Mutually Responsive Orientation scale, an observational measure of the dyadic quality of parent-child exchanges. Potential contributing factors were assessed among parental factors (e.g., age, socioeconomic status, family burden, parental stress, marital satisfaction) and child-related factors (e.g., age, sex, symptoms, fatigue, adaptive/behavioural skills). Socioeconomic status, child post-concussive symptoms, and child sleep problems were found to be significant independent contributing factors to parent-child interactions six months post-injury. This study provides the first evidence that both parental and child factors relate to the quality of parent-child interactions following mTBI, thus contributing to a better understanding of the scope and complexity of factors that play a role in childrens' recovery.

Investigating social functioning after early mild TBI: the quality of parent-child interactions.

The young brain is particularly vulnerable to injury due to inherent physiological and developmental factors, and even mild forms of traumatic brain injury (mTBI) can sometimes result in cognitive and behavioural difficulties. Despite the high prevalence of paediatric mTBI, little is known of its impact on children's social functioning. Parent-child relationships represent the centre of young children's social environments and are therefore ideal contexts for studying the potential effects of mTBI on children's social functioning. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of parent-child interactions after mTBI using observational assessment methods and parental report. The sample included 130 children (18-60 months at recruitment) divided into three groups: children with uncomplicated mTBI (n = 47), children with orthopaedic injury (OI, n = 27), and non-injured children (NI, n = 56). The quality of parent-child interactions was assessed 6 months post-injury using the Mutually Responsive Orientation (MRO) scale, an observational measure which focuses on the dyadic nature of parent-child exchanges, and the Parental Stress Index questionnaire (Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction (PCDI) domain). Significant differences with medium effect sizes were found between the mTBI group and the NI group on the MRO, but not between the OI group and the other two groups. PCDI scores did not differ across groups, suggesting that observational measures may be more sensitive to changes in parent-child interactions after TBI. The current findings have implications for children's post-injury social development and highlight the importance of monitoring social outcomes even after minor head injuries.

Attachment Security and Developmental Patterns of Growth in Executive Functioning During Early Elementary School.

Despite the extensive research demonstrating the importance of child executive functioning (EF) for school adjustment, little longitudinal work has formally examined developmental change in EF during the early school years. Based on a sample of 106 mother-child dyads, the current longitudinal study investigated patterns of growth in child performance on three executive tasks between kindergarten (Mage  = 6 years) and Grade 3 (Mage  = 9 years), and the predictive role of earlier mother-child attachment security in these patterns. The results suggest that early elementary school is a period of significant developmental improvement in child EF, although child performance on different EF tasks follows distinct trajectories across time. The study also provides evidence for a sustained relation between children's early attachment security and their ongoing acquisition of executive skills.

A secure base from which to regulate: Attachment security in toddlerhood as a predictor of executive functioning at school entry.

In light of emerging evidence suggesting that the affective quality of parent-child relationships may relate to individual differences in young children's executive functioning (EF) skills, the aim of this study was to investigate the prospective associations between attachment security in toddlerhood and children's EF skills in kindergarten. Mother-child dyads (N = 105) participated in 2 toddlerhood visits in their homes, when children were 15 months and 2 years of age. Mother-child attachment security was assessed with the Attachment Q-Sort during both these visits. When children were in kindergarten (ages 5-6), they were administered a battery of EF tasks, and their teachers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function to assess children's EF problems. The results indicated that kindergarteners who were more securely attached to their mothers in toddlerhood showed better performance on all EF tasks, and were considered by their teachers to present fewer EF problems in everyday school situations. These results held above family socioeconomic status (SES) and child age, sex, and general cognitive functioning. The fact that early attachment security uniquely predicted both teacher reports and children's objective EF task performance suggests that parent-child attachment may be a promising factor to consider in the continuing search for the social antecedents of young children's EF.

Assessment of executive function in adolescence: a comparison of traditional and virtual reality tools.

Paper-pencil type tests are traditionally used in the assessment of executive functions (EF); however, concerns have been raised as to whether these represent actual functioning in everyday life. Virtual reality (VR) environments offer a novel alternative for the assessment of cognitive function and therefore have the potential to enhance the evaluation of EF by presenting individuals with stimuli that come closer to reproducing everyday situations. The aims of this study were to (1) establish which traditional paper-pencil EF tests from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) are associated with performance on a VR-Stroop task and (2) compare D-KEFS tests and the VR-Stroop task in their ability to predict everyday EF and behavior, as measured by the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Thirty-eight typically developing adolescents aged between 13 and 17 years completed the ClinicaVR: Classroom-Stroop, and five D-KEFS subtests (Trail Making, Tower, Twenty Questions, Verbal Fluency and Color-Word Interference). Their parents completed the BRIEF and CBCL questionnaires. The results indicate that performance on the VR-Stroop task correlates with both traditional forms of EF assessment (D-KEFS, BRIEF). In particular, performance on the VR-Stroop task was closely associated with performance on a paper-pencil inhibition task. Furthermore, VR-Stroop performance more accurately reflected everyday behavioral EF than paper-pencil tasks. VR appears to offer an ecological perspective on everyday functioning and could be seen as complementary to traditional tests in the assessment of complex cognitive abilities.