ABSTRACT
Diabetes mellitus is a growing worldwide epidemic disease, currently affecting 1 in 12 adults. Treatment of disease complications typically consumes â¼10% of healthcare budgets in developed societies. Whilst immune-mediated destruction of insulin-secreting pancreatic ß cells is responsible for Type 1 diabetes, both the loss and dysfunction of these cells underly the more prevalent Type 2 diabetes. The establishment of robust drug development programmes aimed at ß-cell restoration is still hampered by the absence of means to measure ß-cell mass prospectively in vivo, an approach which would provide new opportunities for understanding disease mechanisms and ultimately assigning personalized treatments. In the present review, we describe the progress towards this goal achieved by the Innovative Medicines Initiative in Diabetes, a collaborative public-private consortium supported by the European Commission and by dedicated resources of pharmaceutical companies. We compare several of the available imaging methods and molecular targets and provide suggestions as to the likeliest to lead to tractable approaches. Furthermore, we discuss the simultaneous development of animal models that can be used to measure subtle changes in ß-cell mass, a prerequisite for validating the clinical potential of the different imaging tracers.
Subject(s)
Diabetes Mellitus/pathology , Insulin-Secreting Cells/pathology , Molecular Imaging/methods , Adult , Animals , Cell Adhesion , Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor/metabolism , Humans , Insulin-Secreting Cells/metabolism , Luminescent Measurements , Manganese , Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism , Mice , Rats , Sulfonylurea Receptors/metabolism , Vesicular Monoamine Transport Proteins/metabolism , ZincABSTRACT
Tyrosine phosphorylation of intracellular substrates is one mechanism to regulate cellular proliferation and differentiation. Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) act by dephosphorylation of substrates and thereby counteract the activity of tyrosine kinases. Few PTPs have been suggested to play a role in bone remodeling, one of them being Rptpzeta, since it has been shown to be suppressed by pleiotrophin, a heparin-binding molecule affecting bone formation, when over-expressed in transgenic mice. In a genome-wide expression analysis approach we found that Ptprz1, the gene encoding Rptpzeta, is strongly induced upon terminal differentiation of murine primary calvarial osteoblasts. Using RT-PCR and Western Blotting we further demonstrated that differentiated osteoblasts, in contrast to neuronal cells, specifically express the short transmembrane isoform of Rptpzeta. To uncover a potential role of Rptpzeta in bone remodeling we next analyzed the skeletal phenotype of a Rptpzeta-deficient mouse model using non-decalcified histology and histomorphometry. Compared to wildtype littermates, the Rptpzeta-deficient mice display a decreased trabecular bone volume at the age of 50 weeks, caused by a reduced bone formation rate. Likewise, Rptpzeta-deficient calvarial osteoblasts analyzed ex vivo display decreased expression of osteoblast markers, indicating a cell-autonomous defect. This was confirmed by the finding that Rptpzeta-deficient osteoblasts had a diminished potential to form osteocyte-like cellular extensions on Matrigel-coated surfaces. Taken together, these data provide the first evidence for a physiological role of Rptpzeta in bone remodeling, and thus identify Rptpzeta as the first PTP regulating bone formation in vivo.
Subject(s)
Osteoblasts/enzymology , Osteogenesis/physiology , Protein Isoforms/metabolism , Receptor-Like Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases, Class 5/metabolism , 3T3 Cells , Animals , Bone and Bones/anatomy & histology , Bone and Bones/metabolism , Bone and Bones/pathology , Cell Differentiation/physiology , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Osteoblasts/cytology , Phenotype , Protein Isoforms/genetics , Receptor-Like Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases, Class 5/genetics , SkeletonABSTRACT
BACE is an aspartyl protease that cleaves the amyloid precursor protein (APP) at the beta-secretase cleavage site and is involved in Alzheimer's disease. The aim of our study was to determine whether BACE affects the processing of the APP homolog APLP2. To this end, we developed BACE knockout mice with a targeted insertion of the gene for beta-galactosidase. BACE appeared to be exclusively expressed in neurons as determined by differential staining. BACE was expressed in specific areas in the cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, pons, and spinal cord. APP processing was altered in the BACE knockouts with Abeta levels decreasing. The levels of APLP2 proteolytic products were decreased in BACE KO mice, but increased in BACE transgenic mice. Overexpression of BACE in cultured cells led to increased APLP2 processing. Our results strongly suggest that BACE is a neuronal protein that modulates the processing of both APP and APLP2.
