Mixing short- and long-acting local anaesthetics in peripheral nerve blocks: Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: This protocol describes a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the clinical effects of mixing short- and long-acting local anaesthetics in peripheral nerve blocks. Clinicians often combine short- and long-acting local anaesthetics to achieve a briefer onset time. However, this may come with a prize, namely a shorter total duration of the block, which is of clinical importance. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aims to strengthen the knowledge of the clinical effects associated with this practice. The primary outcome is the duration of block analgesia. Secondary outcomes are block onset time, sensory and motor block duration. Exploratory outcomes are postoperative pain scores, cumulative 24-h opioid consumption and the prevalence of serious adverse events. METHODS: We will conduct a meta-analysis of the extracted data, and the risk of bias for each study will be evaluated. We will perform a Trial Sequential Analysis, subgroup, and sensitivity analyses and assess the overall risk of publication bias. Finally, we will evaluate the review using the GRADE principles.

Peripheral nerve blocks for closed reduction of distal radius fractures-A protocol for a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Current methods of anaesthesia used for closed reduction of distal radial fractures may be insufficient for pain relief and muscle relaxation, potentially compromising reduction quality and patient satisfaction. Peripheral nerve blocks have already been implemented for surgery of wrist fractures and may provide optimal conditions for closed reduction due to complete motor and sensory blockade of the involved nerves. However, existing literature on peripheral nerve blocks for closed reduction is sparse, and no updated systematic review or meta-analysis exists. AIMS: This protocol is developed according to the PRISMA-P statement. The systematic review and meta-analysis aim to consolidate the literature regarding the effect and harm of peripheral nerve blocks compared with other anaesthesia modalities for closed reduction of distal radius fractures in adults. METHODS: The two primary outcomes are the proportion of participants needing surgery after closed reduction and pain during closed reduction. We will only include randomised clinical trials. Two review authors will each independently screen literature, extract data, and assess risk of bias with Risk of Bias 2 Tool. Meta-analysis will be carried out with Rstudio. We will also perform a Trial Sequential Analysis. The certainty of evidence will be judged using GRADE guidelines. DISCUSSION: We will use up-to-date methodology when conducting the systematic review outlined in this protocol. The results may guide clinicians in their decision-making regarding the use of anaesthesia for closed reduction of distal radius fractures in adults.

Single injection combined suprascapular and axillary nerve block: A randomised controlled non-inferiority trial in healthy volunteers.

BACKGROUND: A shoulder block without lung affection is desirable. In this study, we compared a low versus a high volume of a modified supraclavicular brachial plexus block. We hypothesised that a low volume of local anaesthetic would provide non-inferior block success rate with better preserved lung function. METHODS: Healthy volunteers were randomised to receive ultrasound guided 5 or 20 ml ropivacaine 0.5% at the departure of the suprascapular nerve from the brachial plexus. Primary outcome was successful shoulder block-defined as cutaneous sensory affection of the axillary nerve and motor affection of the suprascapular nerve (>50% reduction in external rotation force measured with dynamometry). We used a non-inferiority margin of 20%. Secondary outcome was change in lung function measured with spirometry. RESULTS: Thirteen of 16 (81.3%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 57.0% to 93.4%) in the 5 ml group and 15 of 16 (93.8%; 95% CI 71.7% to 98.9%) in the 20 ml group had successful shoulder block (p = .6). The ratio of the event rates of the 20 ml (standard) and 5 ml (intervention) groups was (15/16)/(13/16) = 0.937/0.813 = 1.15 (95% CI 0.88 to 1.51). All mean reductions in lung function parameters were non-significantly lower in the 5 ml group compared with the 20 ml group. CONCLUSION: For our primary outcome, the 95% CI of the difference of event ratio included the non-inferiority margin. We are therefore unable to conclude that 5 ml LA is non-inferior to 20 ml LA with respect to block success rate.

Low volume proximal suprascapular nerve block after arthroscopic shoulder surgery - A randomised, controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: A proximal suprascapular nerve block has been suggested as an alternative to an interscalene brachial plexus block after arthroscopic shoulder surgery. The aim of this randomised controlled trial was to compare the analgesic and opioid-sparing effect of a low volume proximal suprascapular nerve block with placebo in patients with moderate-to-severe pain after arthroscopic shoulder surgery. METHODS: Patients with a VAS score equal to or above 50 during the first postoperative hour after planned arthroscopic shoulder surgery were included in the study. They were randomised to an ultrasound-guided proximal suprascapular nerve block with either 5 ml ropivacaine 7.5 mg/ml or 5 ml isotonic NaCl. Primary outcome was change in VAS score at rest from baseline to 30 min after the block procedure (T30). Secondary outcomes included total morphine consumption from 0-6 h after block procedure. RESULTS: There was a significant difference in mean VAS reductions at T30 between the two groups favouring the ropivacaine group (-50.2 vs -26.8, p < .001). Total intravenous morphine consumption from 0-6 h after block procedure was significantly lower in the ropivacaine group compared to the placebo group (8.5 mg vs 18.5 mg, p < .01). CONCLUSION: In this study, a proximal suprascapular nerve block with only 5 ml ropivacaine resulted in a substantial pain reduction and opioid-sparing effect in patients with VAS of 50 or more after arthroscopic shoulder surgery.

AuraGain™ versus i-gel™ for bronchoscopic intubation under continuous oxygenation: A randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: After failed mask ventilation and tracheal intubation, guidelines issued by the Difficult Airway Society recommend placing a second generation supraglottic airway device to secure oxygenation. Ultimately, a secure airway can be obtained by tracheal intubation through the supraglottic airway device using a bronchoscope. In this randomised trial, we compared the AuraGain™ with the i-gel™ as conduit for bronchoscopic intubation under continuous oxygenation performed by a group of anaesthesiologists with variable experience in a general population of patients. METHOD: We randomised one hundred patients who were equally allocated to flexible bronchoscopic intubation through the i-gel™ or the AuraGain™. In a random order, 25 anaesthesiologists each performed four intubations, two using the i-gel™ and two using the AuraGain™. Our primary outcome was 'total time for airway management'; i.e. total time from manually reaching the SAD to successful FBI confirmed at the end of the first inspiratory downstroke on the capnography curve. RESULTS: In total, 87% (95% CI, 79%-92%) of the patients were successfully intubated through the allocated supraglottic airway device. There was no difference in total time for airway management between the i-gel™ and the AuraGain™ (199 vs. 227 s, p = .076). However, there was a difference in time for placement of the i-gel™, compared to the AuraGain™, (37 vs. 54 s, p < .001). There were nine failed intubations in the AuraGain™ group compared to four in the i-gel™ group (p = .147). CONCLUSION: We found no difference in total time for airway management between using the i-gel™ and using the AuraGain™.

Programmed, intermittent boluses versus continuous infusion to the sciatic nerve - a non-inferiority randomized, controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Trials comparing programmed, intermittent boluses (PIB) and continuous infusion in catheter-based nerve blocks found no analgesic differences. However, as these trials used equal doses of local anesthetic (LA), the time of action of each bolus was not accounted for. Therefore, the dose-sparing benefits of PIB may have been overlooked. We compared the analgesic effect of boluses administered in intervals resembling the time of action of each bolus with continuous infusion. We hypothesized that PIB provided non-inferior analgesia despite consuming less LA. METHODS: Eighty-one patients undergoing fore- and midfoot surgery receiving a catheter-based sciatic nerve block were randomized to ropivacaine 0.2% as PIB of 10 ml every 8th hour or as continuous infusion, 6 ml h-1 . All participants could also receive boluses of 10 ml every 4th hour as needed. A non-inferiority randomized controlled design was used. Primary outcome was pain (VAS, 0-100 mm) for 72 h using area under curve (AUC) calculation. We assumed a linear relationship between mean VAS and AUC-VAS and used a non-inferiority margin of VAS = 20 mm, corresponding to AUC-VAS = 1440 mm h. RESULTS: Mean difference in AUC-VAS was -416 mm h (95% CI -1076 to 244; p = .217) between continuous infusion (mean AUC-VAS 1206 mm h) and PIB (mean AUC-VAS 1621 mm h), establishing non-inferiority. Mean total LA consumption was significantly larger for continuous infusion compared to PIB ((468 ml (95% CI 458 to 478) vs. 136 ml (95% CI 123 to 148); p < 0.0001)). CONCLUSIONS: PIB provided non-inferior analgesia compared to continuous infusion for 72 postoperative hours despite using significantly less LA.

The Pronator Quadratus Muscle After Volar Plating: Ultrasound Evaluation of Anatomical Changes Correlated to Patient-Reported Clinical Outcome.

Background: Repair of the pronator quadratus (PQ) muscle with sutures has been reported durable after volar plating of distal radius fractures (DRF). It is unclear how the muscle reacts if not repaired and if a retracted muscle correlates to worse functional outcome or complications. In this study, we use ultrasound to investigate the anatomy of the PQ muscle after volar plating with PQ repair or nonrepair and correlate the ultrasound findings with patient-reported outcome. Methods: Participants were recruited from a clinical trial where they were randomly allocated to repair or nonrepair of the PQ muscle after volar plating of DRF. The participants and radiologist were blinded to group allocation. Ultrasound imaging of both fractured and contralateral wrists was performed 3 months after surgery. Ultrasound measurements included the difference in length of PQ muscle between the injured and uninjured side, retraction of PQ muscle, and tendon complications. The length and number of retractions were correlated to complications and Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation (PRWE). Results: The mean difference of the difference in length measurements was 4.4 mm in the nonrepair group and 2.7 mm in the repair group with a mean difference between groups of 1.7 mm. This was statically significant; however, there were no clinical or statistical differences in complication rate or PRWE between the two groups. Conclusion: The PQ length was significantly shorter and the number of retractions significantly larger without repair of the PQ muscle; however, neither length nor retraction correlated significantly with complication rate or PRWE.

Cefuroxime pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics for intravenous dosage regimens with 750 mg or 1500 mg doses in healthy young volunteers.

Introduction. Cefuroxime is an important antibiotic to treat several serious infections. Rapid elimination through the kidneys and the variation in MICs of various susceptible pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae give rise to dosing issues, especially in otherwise healthy patients.Aim. To investigate the probability of target attainment (PTA) for obtaining the optimal dosage regimens for cefuroxime in healthy young people.Methodology. Two weeks apart 750 and 1500 mg cefuroxime were administered as an intravenous bolus to 20 healthy volunteers (mean age: 27 years). Population modelling and simulation studies were done based on the obtained data for cefuroxime plasma concentration.Results. With a target value of time above MIC (T >MIC) greater than 50 % the simulations revealed that a PTA of >99 % is obtained for S. pneumoniae with a dosage regimen of 750 mg q12h. For E. coli and K. pneumoniae the PTA was <90 % even with the highest, simulated dosage of 1500 mg q6h. For S. aureus a dosage of 1500 mg q8h gave a PTA above 97 %.Conclusions. S. pneumoniae is most likely treatable with a two-daily dose of 750 mg cefuroxime. Not treatable are K. pneumoniae and E. coli. For S. aureus 1500 mg q8h constitutes an optimal dosing schedule.

The effect of ropivacaine concentration on common peroneal nerve block duration using a fixed dose: A randomised, double-blind trial in healthy volunteers.

BACKGROUND: The effect of local anaesthetic concentration on peripheral nerve block duration is unclear. Recent clinical trials found nerve blocks of equivalent duration despite changing local anaesthetic concentration but with a fixed local anaesthetic dose. A criticism of these studies is that the local anaesthetic doses used were above the proposed local anaesthetic dose-duration ceiling level, masking any potential effect of different local anaesthetic concentrations on nerve block duration. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the effect of local anaesthetic concentration on nerve block duration using a fixed local anaesthetic dose below the local anaesthetic dose-duration ceiling level. We hypothesised that changing local anaesthetic concentration would affect nerve block duration. DESIGN: Randomised, double-blind trial. SETTING: Single-centre, academic hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Healthy volunteers. INTERVENTIONS: Each participant received an ultrasound-guided common peroneal nerve block with a fixed dose of 10 mg of ropivacaine dissolved in either 2.5, 5, 10, 15 or 20 ml of 0.9% saline according to group allocation, yielding local anaesthetic concentrations of 4, 2, 1, 0.67 and 0.5 mg ml. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was duration of sensory block defined as altered or no sensitivity to a cold stimulus. The secondary outcome was duration of motor block defined as either paresis or paralysis. Intergroup differences were tested using one-way Analysis of variance . RESULTS: All participants had sensory block, and 56 out of 60 participants had motor block. From the highest to the lowest concentration groups, mean ±â€ŠSD sensory block durations were 13.1 ±â€Š2.7, 13.4 ±â€Š3.3, 12.6 ±â€Š3.9, 10.4 ±â€Š2.9 and 11.0 ±â€Š2.1 h (P = 0.073), and mean ±â€ŠSD motor block durations were 8.5 ±â€Š2.0, 7.9 ±â€Š3.0, 6.1 ±â€Š3.1, 5.9 ±â€Š3.5, 4.0 1.9 h (P = 0.002). CONCLUSION: In contrast to our hypothesis, we found no changes in mean sensory nerve block duration. However, local anaesthetic dilution resulted in reduced motor block duration. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03326609.

Volume of ropivacaine 0.2% and sciatic nerve block duration: A randomized, blinded trial in healthy volunteers.

BACKGROUND: Sciatic nerve blocks are used for many orthopaedic procedures on the knee, lower leg, foot and ankle. However, as nerve block durations vary considerably, the timing of supplemental analgesia is challenging. Therefore, knowledge on the effect of local anaesthetic (LA) dose on block duration is important to outweigh the benefits of increasing LA dose against the risk of LA systemic toxicity. In this randomized, double-blind trial, we aimed to explore the relationship between the volume of ropivacaine 0.2% and sciatic nerve block duration. We hypothesized that increasing LA volume would prolong block duration. METHODS: We randomized 60 healthy volunteers to receive one of five volumes of ropivacaine 0.2%: 5, 10, 15, 20, or 30 mL. We used an ultrasound-guided, catheter-based technique targeting the sciatic nerve in the infragluteal region. The primary outcome was sensory block duration defined as the time of insensitivity to a cold stimulus. Intergroup differences were tested using one-way ANOVA. RESULTS: Mean (SD) sensory block durations for the tibial nerve (TN) with increasing volume were: 9.3 hours (1.7), 10.4 hours (1.6), 9.7 hours (2.9), 10.7 hours (2.8) and 9.9 hours (2.6). Mean (SD) sensory block durations for the common peroneal nerve (CPN) were: 10.6 hours (2.7), 11.9 hours (1.5), 11.0 hours (3.3), 13.2 hours (3.7), and 13.5 hours (6.1). There were no intergroup differences (P = .67 [TN]; P = .25 [CPN]). CONCLUSION: We found no effect of increasing the volume of ropivacaine 0.2% from 5 to 30 mL on sensory sciatic nerve block duration.

Intra- and inter-Individual variability in nerve block duration: A randomized cross-over trial in the common peroneal nerve of healthy volunteers.

BACKGROUND: The reported variation in nerve block duration is considerable. To individualize nerve block therapy, knowledge of the intra- vs inter-individual variability is essential. We investigated the relative contribution of these 2 parameters to the overall nerve block duration variability. METHODS: With ethics committee approval, we conducted a randomized cross-over trial where 20 healthy volunteers received 8 common peroneal nerve blockades with lidocaine 0.5% on 4 consecutive days. Allocations were 5 mL to either the right or left side and 10 mL to the opposite side on day 1 and 2 and vice versa on day 3 and 4. With fixed needle entry and nerve target, we repeated local anaesthetic deposition for each blockade. The primary outcome was variation in duration of sensory nerve block defined as insensitivity to a cold stimulus. Data were analysed using linear mixed model regression. RESULTS: The mean sensory block duration of 380 (95% CI = [342; 418]) minutes on day one was 55 [33; 77] minutes longer than on day two (P < .001), but there were no differences in mean duration between days 2, 3 and 4. The ratios with 2.5; 97.5 percentiles between inter- and intra-individual variation were 2.4 [0.8; 5.2] for the 5 mL blockades and 3.0 [0.9; 6.7] for the 10 mL blockades. The probabilities of inter- to intra-individual variation-ratios >1 were 96% and 97%. CONCLUSION: The intra-individual variability is a substantially minor contributor to the overall variability in sensory nerve block duration compared with the inter-individual variability.

No effect on functional outcome after repair of pronator quadratus in volar plating of distal radial fractures: a randomized clinical trial.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to investigate the difference in functional outcome after repair and non-repair of the pronator quadratus muscle in patients undergoing surgical treatment for a distal radial fracture with volar plating. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 72 patients with a distal radial fracture were included in this randomized clinical trial. They were allocated to have the pronator quadratus muscle repaired or not, after volar locked plating of a distal radial fracture. The patients, the assessor, the primary investigator, and the statistician were blinded to the allocation. Randomization was irreversibly performed using a web application that guaranteed a secure and tamper-free assignment. The primary outcome measure was the Patient Rated Wrist Evaluation (PRWE) after 12 months. Secondary outcomes included the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) score, pronation strength, grip strength, the range of pronation and supination, complications, and the operating time. RESULTS: Of the 72 patients, 63 (87.5%) completed follow-up for the primary outcome measure: 31 (86.1%) from the non-repair group and 32 (88.9%) from the repair group. At the 12-month follow-up, the mean difference in PRWE of 5.47 (95% confidence interval (CI) -4.02 to 14.96) between the repair (mean 18.38 (95% CI 10.34 to 26.41)) and non-repair group (mean 12.90 (95% CI 7.55 to 18.25)) was not statistically significant (p = 0.253). There was a statistically significant difference between pronation strength, favouring non-repair. We found no difference in the other secondary outcomes. CONCLUSION: We found that repairing pronator quadratus made no difference to the clinical outcome, 12 months after volar plating of a distal radial fracture. We conclude that there is no functional advantage in repairing this muscle under these circumstances and advise against it. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:1498-1505.

Adductor canal block with a suture-method catheter - A parallel or perpendicular approach?

BACKGROUND: We performed a randomised blinded pilot study in 16 healthy volunteers to assess whether placing a suture-method catheter in the adductor canal is feasible with two different insertion techniques. METHODS: Each volunteer had a suture-method catheter placed approximately halfway between the superior anterior iliac spine and base of the patella in both legs. Catheters were placed using a parallel technique in one leg and a perpendicular technique in the other leg, according to randomisation. 15 mL lidocaine 1% was injected in each catheter. Successful placement was defined as loss of cold sensation in the saphenous area 30 min after injection. Volunteers were sent home and returned the following day and another dose of lidocaine (15 mL, 1%) was injected through the catheters. Catheter displacement distance was assessed by ultrasound and cold sensation was assessed. In case of preserved cold sensation, we attempted to reposition the catheter with a subsequent injection of lidocaine and reassessment of cold sensation. RESULTS: All primary placements were successful using the perpendicular approach (100%; 95% CI 81%-100%) whereas one placement failed using the parallel approach (94%; 95% CI 72%-99%). Three catheters placed using the perpendicular approach were displaced on day 2, compared to one catheter placed with the parallel approach. Displacement distance was highly variable. All catheters, except one, could be repositioned. Three volunteers reported transient sensory deficits lasting approximately 6-8 weeks. CONCLUSION: The suture-method catheter can be placed in the adductor canal with high success rates for initial placement with both techniques.

An in Vivo Mouse Model to Investigate the Effect of Local Anesthetic Nanomedicines on Axonal Conduction and Excitability.

Peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) using local anesthetic (LA) are superior to systemic analgesia for management of post-operative pain. An insufficiently short PNB duration following single-shot LA can be optimized by development of extended release formulations among which liposomes have been shown to be the least toxic. In vivo rodent models for PNB have focused primarily on assessing behavioral responses following LA. In a previous study in human volunteers, we found that it is feasible to monitor the effect of LA in vivo by combining conventional conduction studies with nerve excitability studies. Here, we aimed to develop a mouse model where the same neurophysiological techniques can be used to investigate liposomal formulations of LA in vivo. To challenge the validity of the model, we tested the motor PNB following an unilamellar liposomal formulation, filled with the intermediate-duration LA lidocaine. Experiments were carried out in adult transgenic mice with fluorescent axons and with fluorescent tagged liposomes to allow in vivo imaging by probe-based confocal laser endomicroscopy. Recovery of conduction following LA injection at the ankle was monitored by stimulation of the tibial nerve fibers at the sciatic notch and recording of the plantar compound motor action potential (CMAP). We detected a delayed recovery in CMAP amplitude following liposomal lidocaine, without detrimental systemic effects. Furthermore, CMAP threshold-tracking studies of the distal tibial nerve showed that the increased rheobase was associated with a sequence of excitability changes similar to those found following non-encapsulated lidocaine PNB in humans, further supporting the translational value of the model.

Local Anesthetic Injection Speed and Common Peroneal Nerve Block Duration: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Healthy Volunteers.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The speed of local anesthetic (LA) injections in peripheral regional anesthesia ranges from slow continuous infusions (3-12 mL/h) to rapid manual injections (>7500 mL/h). Optimizing injection speed could augment the spread of LA toward the targeted nerves and influence nerve block characteristics. The objective of this study was to investigate whether injection speed of a single dose of LA affects peripheral nerve block duration. METHODS: After approval from the Danish Regional Scientific Ethics Committee, we enrolled 60 healthy adult volunteers. We used an ultrasound-guided catheter-based technique to perform a common peroneal nerve block. Participants were randomized to receive 4.0 mL of ropivacaine 0.2% with 1 of 5 injection speeds: 12, 60, 300, 600, or 1800 mL/h. Investigators and participants were blinded to group assignment and intervention. Primary outcome was duration of sensory nerve block defined by insensitivity toward cold. Secondary outcomes were duration of motor nerve block, time to onset of sensory nerve block, and grades of sensory and motor nerve block.Intergroup differences were tested by one-way analysis of variance. RESULTS: We found no differences in sensory block duration between the 5 groups. Durations were median [range]: 11 [6-14], 12 [9-14], 10.5 [2-15], 11 [8-17], and 12 [9-18] hours, respectively (P = 0.294). In addition, we found no differences in secondary outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Injection speed of LA in the range of 12 to 1800 mL/h did not affect common peroneal nerve block duration. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT02801799.

"Eyeball test" of thermographic patterns for predicting a successful lateral infraclavicular block.

PURPOSE: Increased distal skin temperature can be used to predict the success of lateral infraclavicular (LIC) block. We hypothesized that an "eyeball test" of specific infrared thermographic patterns after LIC block could be used to determine block success. METHODS: In this observational study, five observers trained in four distinct thermographic patterns independently evaluated thermographic images of the hands of 40 patients at baseline and at one-minute intervals for 30 min after a LIC block. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of a positive and a negative test were estimated to evaluate the validity of specific thermographic patterns for predicting a successful block. Sensory and motor block of the musculocutaneous, radial, ulnar, and median nerves defined block success. Fleiss' kappa statistics of multiple interobserver agreements were used to evaluate reliability. RESULTS: As a diagnostic test, the defined specific thermographic patterns of the hand predicted a successful block with increasing accuracy over the 30-min observation period. Block success was predicted with a sensitivity of 92.4% (95% confidence interval [CI], 86.8 to 96.2) and with a specificity of 84.0% (95% CI, 70.3 to 92.4) at min 30. The Fleiss' kappa for the five observers was 0.87 (95% CI, 0.77 to 0.96). CONCLUSION: We conclude that visual evaluation by an eyeball test of specific thermographic patterns of the blocked hands may be useful as a valid and reliable diagnostic test for predicting a successful LIC block.

Infrared thermographic assessment of changes in skin temperature during hypoglycaemia in patients with type 1 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Hypoglycaemia is associated with reduced skin temperature (Ts). We studied whether infrared thermography can detect Ts changes during hypoglycaemia in patients with type 1 diabetes and how the Ts response differs between patients with normal hypoglycaemia awareness and hypoglycaemia unawareness. METHODS: Twenty-four patients with type 1 diabetes (ten aware, 14 unaware) were studied during normoglycaemia (5.0-6.0 mmol/l), hypoglycaemia (2.0-2.5 mmol/l) and during recovery from hypoglycaemia (5.0-6.0 mmol/l) using hyperinsulinaemic glucose clamping. During each 1 h phase, Ts was measured twice by infrared thermography imaging in pre-defined areas (nose, glabella and the five left fingertips), symptoms of hypoglycaemia were scored and blood was sampled. RESULTS: Ts decreased during hypoglycaemia on the nose and glabella. The highest decrements were recorded on the nose (aware: -2.6 °C, unaware: -1.1 °C). In aware patients, the differences in temperature were statistically significant on both nose and glabella, whereas there was only a trend in the unaware group. There was a significant difference in hypoglycaemia-induced temperature changes between the groups. Patients in the aware group had higher hypoglycaemia symptom scores and higher adrenaline (epinephrine) levels during hypoglycaemia. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The hypoglycaemia-associated decrement in Ts can be assessed by infrared thermography and is larger in patients with normal hypoglycaemia awareness compared with unaware patients.

Cutaneous Sensory Block Area, Muscle-Relaxing Effect, and Block Duration of the Transversus Abdominis Plane Block: A Randomized, Blinded, and Placebo-Controlled Study in Healthy Volunteers.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block is a widely used nerve block. However, basic block characteristics are poorly described. The purpose of this study was to assess the cutaneous sensory block area, muscle-relaxing effect, and block duration. METHODS: Sixteen healthy volunteers were randomized to receive an ultrasound-guided unilateral TAP block with 20 mL 7.5 mg/mL ropivacaine and placebo on the contralateral side. Measurements were performed at baseline and 90 minutes after performing the block. Cutaneous sensory block area was mapped and separated into a medial and lateral part by a vertical line through the anterior superior iliac spine. We measured muscle thickness of the 3 lateral abdominal muscle layers with ultrasound in the relaxed state and during maximal voluntary muscle contraction. The volunteers reported the duration of the sensory block and the abdominal muscle-relaxing effect. RESULTS: The lateral part of the cutaneous sensory block area was a median of 266 cm2 (interquartile range, 191-310 cm2) and the medial part 76 cm 2(interquartile range, 54-127 cm2). In all the volunteers, lateral wall muscle thickness decreased significantly by 9.2 mm (6.9-15.7 mm) during a maximal contraction. Sensory block and muscle-relaxing effect duration were 570 minutes (512-716 minutes) and 609 minutes (490-724 minutes), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Cutaneous sensory block area of the TAP block is predominantly located lateral to a vertical line through the anterior superior iliac spine. The distribution is nondermatomal and does not cross the midline. The muscle-relaxing effect is significant and consistent. The block duration is approximately 10 hours with large variation.