To Pay or Just Play? Examining Individual Differences Between Purchasers and Earners of Loot Boxes in Overwatch.

Video-game loot boxes are a popular form of microtransaction that have been widely criticized for their structural similarities to gambling. Recent research linking loot box expenditure to gambling activity has illuminated potential harms associated with loot box use. However, whether the harms differ between earning loot boxes through gameplay versus acquiring loot boxes through purchasing remains understudied. This pre-registered study explores gambling, gaming and loot box-related harms between loot box purchasers and earners in the scope of the game Overwatch. To our knowledge, this is the first study to assess loot box-related harms in a single game. We found that loot box purchasers experienced greater video-game related expenditure harms, risky loot box use, impulsivity related to planning and reward reactivity in comparison to loot box earners. Surprisingly, Overwatch loot box earners displayed greater gambling-related harms and there were no differences in general problem video-gaming between the two groups. Our results suggest that the relationship between loot box purchasing and gambling is in need of refined examination. Particularly, our results indicate that potential harms stemming from loot box engagement should be assessed on a game-by-game basis in order to better understand the potentially problematic nature of loot box use.

Contrasting Mind-Wandering, (Dark) Flow, and Affect During Multiline and Single-Line Slot Machine Play.

Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling in which a small proportion of gamblers experience gambling-related problems. These players refer to a trance-like state that researchers have labelled 'dark flow'-a pleasurable, but maladaptive state where players become completely occupied by the game. We assessed 110 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). Participants played both a multiline and single-line slot machine simulator and were occasionally interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were thinking about the game or something else. After playing each game, we retrospectively assessed dark flow and affect during play. Our key results were that the number of "on-game" reports during the multiline game were significantly higher than the single-line game, and that we found significantly greater flow during the multiline game than the single-line game. We also found significantly lower negative affect during the multiline game than the single-line game. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that dark flow accounted for unique variance when predicting problem gambling severity (over and above depression, mindfulness, and boredom proneness). These assessments help bolster our previous assertions about escape gambling-if some players are prone to having their mind-wander to negative places, the frequent but unpredictable reinforcement of multiline slot machines may help rein in the wandering mind and prevent minds from unintentionally wandering to negative thoughts.

Rare Loot Box Rewards Trigger Larger Arousal and Reward Responses, and Greater Urge to Open More Loot Boxes.

Loot boxes are a purchasable video-game feature consisting of randomly determined, in-game virtual items. Due to their chance-based nature, there is much debate as to whether they constitute a form of gambling. We sought to address this issue by examining whether players treat virtual loot box rewards in a way that parallels established reward reactivity for monetary rewards in slots play. Across two sets of experiments, we show that loot boxes containing rarer items are more valuable, arousing, rewarding and urge-inducing to players, similar to the way slots gamblers treat rare large wins in slots play. Importantly, we show in Experiment 2 that the duration of Post Reinforcement Pauses, an index of reward reactivity, are longer for boxes with rarer items. Boxes containing rarer rewards also trigger larger Skin Conductance Responses and larger force responses-indices of positive arousal. Findings of Experiment 2 also revealed that there was an increase in anticipatory arousal prior to the reveal of loot box rewards. Collectively, our results elucidate the structural similarities between loot boxes and specific gambling games. The fact that players find rarer game items hedonically rewarding and motivating has implications for potential risky or excessive loot box use for some players.

Do losses disguised as wins create a "sweet spot" for win overestimates in multiline slots play?

Multiline slots are popular electronic gaming machines. Research suggests that particular outcomes on these games, namely losses disguised as a wins or LDWs, may make these games particularly alluring to gamblers. LDWs occur when one wins less than they wager, but the machine celebrates these net losses with flashing lines and winning sounds (e.g., bet a dollar, win back a dime). Players are known to somatically, psychologically, and behaviourlly miscategorize LDWs as wins rather than losses. Furthermore, LDWs lead players to overestimate how many times they thought they won during a playing session - leading to what is known as the LDW-triggered win-overestimation effect. In this paper, we analyzed experienced players' win-overestimates from 13 studies after playing slots with different LDW percentages. The combined data showed an inverted U-shaped function for win-overestimates. There appears to be a "sweet spot" for the LDW-triggered win-overestimation effect; wherein, a moderate number of LDWs maximizes this effect, but a high number of LDWs decreases the effect. In Study 2, we confirmed with 132 experienced gamblers that there appears to be maximal win overestimates at around 19.6% LDWs. We conjecture that a high number of LDWs may lead players to see a disconnection between the running total on the machine going down and the number of "wins", leading to more accurate win estimates. This inverted "U" effect for win-overestimates parallels previous research showing that gamblers continue to play for longer during a losing streak following a playing session with a moderate (versus low or high) number of LDWs. LDW-triggered win-overestimates may contribute to the allure of multiline slots -games that cause significant problems for a subset of gamblers.

Using deliberate mind-wandering to escape negative mood states: Implications for gambling to escape.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Slot machines are a pervasive form of gambling in North America. Some gamblers describe entering "the slot machine zone"-a complete immersion into slots play to the exclusion of all else. METHODS: We assessed 111 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI)), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). In a counterbalanced order, participants played a slot machine simulator and completed an auditory vigilance task. During each task, participants were interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were: on-task, spontaneously mind-wandering, or deliberately mind-wandering. After completing each task, we retrospectively assessed flow and affect. Compared to the more exciting slots play, we propose that gamblers may use deliberate mind-wandering as a maladaptive means to regulate affect during a repetitive vigilance task. RESULTS: Our key results were that gamblers reported greater negative affect following the vigilance task (when compared to slots) and greater positive affect following slots play (when compared to the vigilance task). We also found that those who scored higher in problem gambling were more likely to use deliberate mind-wandering as a means to cope with negative affect during the vigilance task. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that the number of "deliberately mind-wandering" responses accounted for unique variance when predicting problem gambling severity (over and above depression, mindfulness, and boredom proneness). CONCLUSIONS: These assessments highlight a potential coping mechanism used by problem gamblers in order to deal with negative affect.

The relationship between the skill-challenge balance, game expertise, flow and the urge to keep playing complex mobile games.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Interest surrounding the relationship between flow and problematic gameplay has surged. An important antecedent of flow in the context of video-gaming is the skill-challenge balance, but researchers have only manipulated this balance by changing speed of play. The current research seeks to examine the skill-challenge balance and flow in a mobile game in which challenge is increased via the complexity of puzzles. We predicted games like Candy-Crush would more strongly support a model of flow in which the greatest flow would be experienced by more skilled players and that high flow games would induce the most urge to continue play. METHODS: We had 60 Candy-Crush players play games near their level standing (maximal skill-challenge balance), or games that were too easy or too hard. Perceived skill, challenge, flow, and urge to continue gameplay were measured after each game. RESULTS: Players felt the highest degree of skill-challenge balance when playing games around their level standing. Easy games produced the least flow, while both regular and hard games produced comparable flow despite hard games being far more challenging and frustrating. The findings support models of flow positing those with highest perceived skill will experience greater flow. Finally, flow and arousal combine to increase urge to keep playing. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest those with high perceived skill will experience deep, immersive flow which motivates players to keep playing.

Reward reactivity and dark flow in slot-machine gambling: "Light" and "dark" routes to enjoyment.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling. In this study, we look at two different routes to enjoying slots play. One route involves the degree to which players react to rewards. The other route involves what we call dark flow - a pleasurable, but maladaptive state where players become completely engrossed in slots play, providing an escape from the depressing thoughts that characterize their everyday lives. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-nine high-frequency slots players were tested on slot-machine simulators set up in the lobby of a casino. We measured reward reactivity using post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs) and the force with which players pressed the spin button following different slot-machine outcomes. For each player, we calculated the slopes of PRPs and force as a function of credit gains. We also assessed players' slots game enjoyment and their experience of dark flow, depression, and problem gambling. RESULTS: Both the PRP and the force measures of reward reactivity were significantly correlated with players' enjoyment of the slots session, but neither measure was correlated with either problem gambling or depression. Ratings of dark flow were strongly correlated with slots enjoyment (which accounted for far more positive affect variance than the reward reactivity measures) and were correlated with both problem gambling scores and depression. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that of these two routes to enjoying slot-machine play, the dark flow route is especially problematic. We contend that the dark flow state may be enjoyable because it provides escape from the negative thoughts linked to depression.

Mindfulness problems and depression symptoms in everyday life predict dark flow during slots play: Implications for gambling as a form of escape.

Slot machine players refer to a state of absorption that researchers have labeled dark flow. Players become completely occupied by the game and forget everything else (leading to "dark" consequences such as spending more money than intended). We propose that players who experience dark flow have difficulty staying on task in everyday life, but, the reinforcing sights and sounds of slot machines rein in these otherwise wandering minds and induce these flow-like states. We assessed 129 gamblers for mindfulness problems (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index), and depressive symptoms (using the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale). Participants played a slot machine simulator and were periodically interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were thinking about the game or about something else. After playing, we retrospectively assessed dark flow and positive affect during play. Our key results were that mindfulness problems outside of the gambling context were positively correlated with depression, problem gambling status, and most importantly, dark flow within the gambling context. Dark flow was positively correlated with positive affect during play and the combination of dark flow and depression predicted gambling problems. The picture that emerges is that individuals with mindfulness problems in everyday life find their attention locked in by slot machines inducing dark flow, which in turn leads to a state of positive affect. For depressed players especially, this state may be enjoyable because it provides an escape from the negative mentation linked to depression that characterizes the everyday lives of these troubled players. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Dark Flow, Depression and Multiline Slot Machine Play.

Multiline slot machines allow for a unique outcome type referred to as a loss disguised as a win (LDW). An LDW occurs when a player gains credits on a spin, but fewer credits than their original wager (e.g. 15-cent gain on a 20-cent wager). These outcomes alter the gambler's play experience by providing frequent, albeit smaller, credit gains throughout a playing session that are in fact net losses. Despite this negative overall value, research has shown that players physiologically respond to LDWs as if they are wins, not losses. These outcomes also create a "smoother" experience for the player that seems to promote a highly absorbing, flow-like state that we have called "dark flow". Past research has indicated that there may be a relationship between problem gambling status and dark flow, as well as between dark flow, depression, and gambling expectancies. In this study, we sought to further understand these relationships, while examining the influence of LDWs on game preference in the context of single versus multiline slots play. We used a realistic slot machine simulator equipped with a force transducer to measure how hard players pressed the spin button following different outcomes. This measure of arousal showed that LDWs were treated similarly to small wins. Participants overwhelmingly preferred the multiline game and experienced more positive affect while playing it, compared to the single-line game. Problem gambling severity index scores were related to dark flow in both games, but this relationship was stronger for the multiline game. Additionally, depression symptomatology and dark flow were strongly correlated in the multiline game, with significant relationships between depression and gambling expectancy, and gambling expectancy and dark flow ratings also emerging.

Near-Misses and Stop Buttons in Slot Machine Play: An Investigation of How They Affect Players, and May Foster Erroneous Cognitions.

In modern casinos, multiline slot machines are becoming increasingly popular compared to traditional, three-reel slot machines. A paucity of research has examined how the unique presentation of near-misses and the use of a stop button in multiline slot machines impact erroneous cognitions related to the perception of skill and agency during play. Our goal therefore was to determine the prevalence of erroneous cognitions pertaining to near-miss outcomes and the usage of a stop button and then to see whether the stop button affected players' experiences of winning, losing and near-miss outcomes. We recruited 132 gamblers from a casino in Ontario. They played two versions of a slot machine simulator: one with a stop button and one without a stop button. We measured player's arousal [skin conductance responses (SCRs), pressure on the spin-button), and behavioural responses (post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs)] to wins, losses and near-misses during play. We predicted more robust physiological SCRs and longer PRPs to wins in the stop button game. We also predicted that near-misses encountered in the stop button game would trigger greater levels of arousal and frustration in players, as indexed by larger SCRs, and greater force applied to the spin button to initiate the next spin. Erroneous cognitions pertaining to the stop button and near-misses respectively were assessed following play. Results showed that a small but meaningful percentage of players held erroneous cognitions about the stop button (13.6%) and near-misses (16%). Players depressed the spin button harder, and had larger SCRs for all outcomes when using the stop button. Players also paused longer for near-misses in the game involving the stop button. Our findings converge to suggest that the stop button encourages an erroneous perception of skill in some players, and consequentially impacts how such players perceive their outcomes in multiline slot machines.

The Candy Crush Sweet Tooth: How 'Near-misses' in Candy Crush Increase Frustration, and the Urge to Continue Gameplay.

Like many gambling games, the exceedingly popular and lucrative smartphone game "Candy Crush" features near-miss outcomes. In slot machines, a near-miss involves getting two of the needed three high-paying symbols on the pay-line (i.e., just missing the big win). In Candy Crush, the game signals when you just miss getting to the next level by one or two moves. Because near-misses in gambling games have consistently been shown to invigorate play despite being frustrating outcomes, the goal of the present study was to examine whether such near-misses trigger increases in player arousal, frustration and urge to continue play in Candy Crush. Sixty avid Candy Crush players were recruited to play the game for 30 min while having their Heart Rate, Skin Conductance Level, subjective arousal, frustration and urge to play recorded for three types of outcomes: wins (where they level up), losses (where they don't come close to levelling up), and near-misses (where they just miss levelling up). Near-misses were more arousing than losses as indexed by increased heart rate and greater subjective arousal. Near-misses were also subjectively rated as the most frustrating of all outcomes. Most importantly, of any type of outcome, near-misses triggered the most substantial urge to continue play. These findings suggest that near-misses in Candy Crush play a role in player commitment to the game, and may contribute to players playing longer than intended.