Dose-dependent effect of S(+) ketamine on post-ischemic endogenous neurogenesis in rats.

BACKGROUND: Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist at N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and reduces neuronal injury after cerebral ischemia by blocking the excitotoxic effects of glutamate. However, cerebral regeneration by means of endogenous neurogenesis may be impaired with blockade of NMDA receptors. The effects of S(+) ketamine on post-ischemic neurogenesis are unknown and investigated in this study. METHODS: Thirty-two male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to the following treatment groups with intravenous S(+) ketamine anesthesia: S(+) ketamine 0.75 mg/kg/min with or without cerebral ischemia and S(+) ketamine 1.0 mg/kg/min with or without cerebral ischemia. Eight non-anesthetized, non-ischemic animals were investigated as naïve controls. Forebrain ischemia was induced by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion in combination with hemorrhagic hypotension. 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) was injected intraperitoneally for seven consecutive post-operative days. BrdU-positive neurons in the dentate gyrus and histopathological damage of the hippocampus were analyzed after 28 days. RESULTS: The number of new neurons was not affected by S(+) ketamine in the absence of cerebral ischemia. The ischemia-induced increase in neurogenesis was reduced by high-dose S(+) ketamine. Cell death of ischemic animals did not vary between low- and high-dose S(+) ketamine. CONCLUSION: While low concentrations of S(+) ketamine allow an ischemia-induced increase in the number of new neurons, high S(+) ketamine concentrations block the post-ischemic increase in newly generated neurons. This effect is irrespective of the extent of other histopathological damage and in line with studies showing that NMDA receptor antagonists like MK-801 inhibit neurogenesis after cerebral ischemia.

Synaptic ribbon dynamics in photoreceptors of mice.

The present study deals with structural plasticity of a special type of chemical synapse, the ribbon synapse. Near the presynaptic membrane ribbon synapses contain conspicuous electron-dense synaptic bodies which appear mainly as rod-like profiles under the transmission electron microscope. In addition, club-shaped and spherical profiles may be present, the function of which is unclear. To gain some insight into the significance of the latter structures we studied their presence in rod-type photoreceptor cells of BALB/c mice under different lighting conditions. Quantification revealed that the club-shaped and the spherical profiles showed a clear light/dark dependence. They were virtually absent at night and increased strikingly in number when the animals were exposed to light. When darkness was extended into the morning, the profiles remained low in number. As the rod cells diminish their neurotransmitter release during the light phase, the present findings are interpreted as signs of synapse inactivation.

Transient synaptic ribbons in the mammalian retina at unusual sites.

In the vertebrate retina the presence of synaptic ribbons (SRs) is well documented in two sites only, viz., in photoreceptor axon terminals in the outer plexiform layer and in bipolar cell axons in the inner plexiform layer. The present paper reports the presence of non-photoreceptor SRs in the outer plexiform layer of cattle and mouse, where they were seen in small numbers in thin cell processes near cone pedicles of light-adapted animals. They were never seen near rod spherules. Quantitative data obtained in mice killed at different time-points revealed that the SRs under consideration increased in number during day time and were absent during the dark phase. Moreover, under high light intensity of 10000 lux they were more frequent in number compared to 100-lux-exposed animals. It is concluded that the cell processes revealing the temporary presence of SRs are processes of flat bipolar cells which may provide a feedback to cones during the light phase.