Correction: Chaby et al. Cross-Platform Evaluation of Commercially Targeted and Untargeted Metabolomics Approaches to Optimize the Investigation of Psychiatric Disease. Metabolites 2021, 11, 609.

In the original publication [...].

Plasma biomarkers associated with deployment trauma and its consequences in post-9/11 era veterans: initial findings from the TRACTS longitudinal cohort.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is among the most common injuries sustained by post-9/11 veterans; however, these injuries often occur within the context of psychological trauma. Blast exposure, even in the absence of a diagnosable TBI, leads to changes in neural connectivity and congitive functioning. Therefore, considering clinical comorbidities and injury characteristics is critical to understanding the long-term effects of mTBI. Research is moving towards identifying diagnostic and prognostic blood-based biomarkers for TBI; however, few studies include other prevalent clinical and medical comorbidities related to deployment. Here, we present the initial cross-sectional relationships between plasma biomarkers, clinical, and medical comorbidities in a well-characterized longitudinal sample of 550 post-9/11 veteran men and women. We examined biomarkers associated with inflammation (interleukin 6 and 10, tumor necrosis factor α, and eotaxin) and neurodegeneration (neurofilament light, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), tau, brain derived neurotrophic factor, amyloid ß 40 and 42, phosphorylated neurofilament heavy chain, and neuron specific enolase). Univariate analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were conducted to determine mean level differences between close blast (blasts that occur within 0-10 meters) and mTBI groups. Our primary findings were twofold: (1) Inflammatory markers were consistently higher in participants exposed to close blasts and were strongly related to deployment-related psychopathology. (2) GFAP was consistently lower in participants exposed to blast and mTBI and lower GFAP was associated with more severe psychological symptoms. More research is clearly needed; however, our findings indicate that chronic increased inflammation and decreased GFAP may be related to close blast exposure.

Cross-Platform Evaluation of Commercially Targeted and Untargeted Metabolomics Approaches to Optimize the Investigation of Psychiatric Disease.

Metabolomics methods often encounter trade-offs between quantification accuracy and coverage, with truly comprehensive coverage only attainable through a multitude of complementary assays. Due to the lack of standardization and the variety of metabolomics assays, it is difficult to integrate datasets across studies or assays. To inform metabolomics platform selection, with a focus on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), we review platform use and sample sizes in psychiatric metabolomics studies and then evaluate five prominent metabolomics platforms for coverage and performance, including intra-/inter-assay precision, accuracy, and linearity. We found performance was variable between metabolite classes, but comparable across targeted and untargeted approaches. Within all platforms, precision and accuracy were highly variable across classes, ranging from 0.9-63.2% (coefficient of variation) and 0.6-99.1% for accuracy to reference plasma. Several classes had high inter-assay variance, potentially impeding dissociation of a biological signal, including glycerophospholipids, organooxygen compounds, and fatty acids. Coverage was platform-specific and ranged from 16-70% of PTSD-associated metabolites. Non-overlapping coverage is challenging; however, benefits of applying multiple metabolomics technologies must be weighed against cost, biospecimen availability, platform-specific normative levels, and challenges in merging datasets. Our findings and open-access cross-platform dataset can inform platform selection and dataset integration based on platform-specific coverage breadth/overlap and metabolite-specific performance.

Cross-platform comparison of highly sensitive immunoassay technologies for cytokine markers: Platform performance in post-traumatic stress disorder and Parkinson's disease.

There is mounting evidence of systemic inflammation in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), yet inconsistency and a lack of replicability in findings of putative biological markers have delayed progress in this space. Variability in performance between platforms may contribute to the lack of consensus in the biomarker literature, as has been seen for a number of psychiatric disorders, including PTSD. Thus, there is a need for high-performance, scalable, and validated platforms for the discovery and development of biomarkers of inflammation for use in drug development and as clinical diagnostics. To identify the best platform for use in future biomarker discovery efforts, we conducted a comprehensive cross-platform and cross-assay evaluation across five leading platform technologies. This initial assessment focused on four cytokines that have been implicated PTSD - interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interferon (IFN)-γ. To assess platform performance and understand likely measurements in individuals with brain disorders, serum and plasma samples were obtained from individuals with PTSD (n = 13) or Parkinson's Disease (n = 14) as well as healthy controls (n = 5). We compared platform performance across a number of common analytic parameters, including assay precision, sensitivity, frequency of endogenous analyte detection (FEAD), correlation between platforms, and parallelism in measurement of cytokines using a serial dilution series. The single molecule array (Simoa™) ultra-sensitive platform (Quanterix), MESO V-Plex (Mesoscale Discovery), and Luminex xMAP® (Myriad) were conducted by their respective vendors, while Luminex® and Quantikine® high-sensitivity ELISA assays were evaluated by R&D System's Biomarker Testing Services. The assay with the highest sensitivity in detecting endogenous analytes across all analytes and clinical populations (i.e. the highest FEAD), was the Simoa™ platform. In contrast, more variable performance was observed for MESO V-plex, R&D Luminex® and Quantikine®, while Myriad's Luminex xMAP® exhibited low FEAD across all analytes and samples. Simoa™ also demonstrated high precision in detecting endogenous cytokines, as reflected in < 20 percent coefficient of variance (%CV) across replicate runs for samples from the healthy controls, PTSD patients, and PD patients. In contrast, MESO V-Plex, R&D Luminex® and Quantikine® had variable performance in terms of precision across cytokines. Myriad Luminex xMAP® could not be included in precision estimates because the vendor did not run samples in duplicate. For cross-platform performance comparisons, the highest cross-platform correlations were observed for IL-6 such that all platforms - except for Myriad's Luminex xMAP® - had strong correlations with one another in measurements of IL-6 (r range = 0.59 - 0.86). For the other cytokines, there was low to no correlation across platforms, such that reported measurements of IL-1ß, TNF-α, and IFN-γ varied across assays. Taken together, these findings provide novel evidence that the choice of immunoassay could greatly impact reported cytokine findings. The current study provides crucial information on the variability in performance between platforms and across immunoassays that may help inform the selection of assay in future research studies. Further, the results emphasize the need for performing comparative evaluations of immunoassays as new technologies emerge over time, particularly given the lack of reference standards for the quantitative assessments of cytokines.

PTSD Biomarker Database: deep dive metadatabase for PTSD biomarkers, visualizations and analysis tools.

The PTSD Biomarker Database (PTSDDB) is a database that provides a landscape view of physiological markers being studied as putative biomarkers in the current post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) literature to enable researchers to explore and compare findings quickly. The PTSDDB currently contains over 900 biomarkers and their relevant information from 109 original articles published from 1997 to 2017. Further, the curated content stored in this database is complemented by a web application consisting of multiple interactive visualizations that enable the investigation of biomarker knowledge in PTSD (e.g. clinical study metadata, biomarker findings, experimental methods, etc.) by compiling results from biomarker studies to visualize the level of evidence for single biomarkers and across functional categories. This resource is the first attempt, to the best of our knowledge, to capture and organize biomarker and metadata in the area of PTSD for storage in a comprehensive database that may, in turn, facilitate future analysis and research in the field.

Contribution of a mesocorticolimbic subcircuit to drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

Cocaine-seeking behavior triggered by drug-paired environmental context exposure is dependent on orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)-basolateral amygdala (BLA) interactions. Here, we present evidence supporting the hypothesis that dopaminergic input from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the OFC critically regulates these interactions. In experiment 1, we employed site-specific pharmacological manipulations to show that dopamine D1-like receptor stimulation in the OFC is required for drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior following extinction training in an alternate context. Intra-OFC pretreatment with the dopamine D1-like receptor antagonist, SCH23390, dose-dependently attenuated cocaine-seeking behavior in an anatomically selective manner, without altering motor performance. Furthermore, the effects of SCH23390 could be surmounted by co-administration of a sub-threshold dose of the D1-like receptor agonist, SKF81297. In experiment 2, we examined effects of D1-like receptor antagonism in the OFC on OFC-BLA interactions using a functional disconnection manipulation. Unilateral SCH23390 administration into the OFC plus GABA agonist-induced neural inactivation of the contralateral or ipsilateral BLA disrupted drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior relative to vehicle, while independent unilateral manipulations of these brain regions were without effect. Finally, in experiment 3, we used fluorescent retrograde tracers to demonstrate that the VTA, but not the substantia nigra, sends dense intra- and interhemispheric projections to the OFC, which in turn has reciprocal bi-hemispheric connections with the BLA. These findings support that dopaminergic input from the VTA, via dopamine D1-like receptor stimulation in the OFC, is required for OFC-BLA functional interactions. Thus, a VTA-OFC-BLA neural circuit promotes drug context-induced motivated behavior.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase in the basolateral amygdala, but not the nucleus accumbens core, is critical for context-response-cocaine memory reconsolidation in rats.

The reconsolidation of cocaine memories following retrieval is necessary for the sustained ability of a cocaine-paired environmental context to elicit cocaine seeking. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) is an intracellular signaling molecule involved in nucleus accumbens core (NACc)-mediated reconsolidation of Pavlovian cocaine memories. Here, we used a rodent model of drug context-elicited relapse to test the hypothesis that ERK would be similarly required for the reconsolidation of context-response-cocaine memories that underlie drug context-induced reinstatement of instrumental cocaine-seeking behavior, with a focus on the NACc and on the basolateral amygdala (BLA), another important locus for the reconsolidation of cocaine memories. We show that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK)/ERK1/2 inhibitor, U0126 (1.0 µg/0.5 µl/hemisphere), microinfused bilaterally into the BLA--but not the NACc--immediately after brief re-exposure to a previously cocaine-paired context (that is, cocaine-memory reactivation), significantly attenuated subsequent drug context-induced cocaine seeking relative to vehicle (VEH). This effect in the BLA was associated with a transient inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation, and it depended on memory reactivation given that U0126 administered following exposure to a novel context did not alter subsequent cocaine seeking. Furthermore, similar to U0126, baclofen+muscimol-induced (B+M; 106.8/5.7 ng/0.5 µl/hemisphere) neural inactivation of the NACc, following cocaine-memory reactivation, failed to alter subsequent cocaine seeking. These findings demonstrate that ERK activation in the BLA, but not the NACc, is required for the reconsolidation of context-response-cocaine associative memories. Together with prior research, these results suggest that contextual drug-memory reconsolidation in Pavlovian and instrumental settings involves distinct neuroanatomical mechanisms.

Subregion-specific role of glutamate receptors in the nucleus accumbens on drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

The functional integrity of the nucleus accumbens (NAC) core and shell is necessary for contextual cocaine-seeking behavior in the reinstatement animal model of drug relapse; however, the neuropharmacological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are poorly understood. The present study evaluated the contribution of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 1 (mGluR1) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)/kainate receptor populations to drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. Rats were trained to lever press for un-signaled cocaine infusions in a distinct context followed by extinction training in a different context. Cocaine-seeking behavior (non-reinforced active lever pressing) was then assessed in the previously cocaine-paired and extinction contexts after JNJ16259685 (mGluR1 antagonist: 0.0, 0.6, or 30 pg/0.3 µl/hemisphere) or CNQX (AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist: 0.0, 0.03, or 0.3 µg/0.3 µl /hemisphere) administration into the NAC core, medial or lateral NAC shell, or the ventral caudate-putamen (vCPu, anatomical control). JNJ16259685 or CNQX in the NAC core dose-dependently impaired contextual cocaine-seeking behavior relative to vehicle. Conversely, CNQX, but not JNJ16259685, in the lateral or medial NAC shell attenuated, whereas CNQX or JNJ16259685 in vCPu failed to inhibit, this behavior. The manipulations failed to alter instrumental behavior in the extinction context, general motor activity or food-reinforced instrumental behavior in control experiments. Thus, glutamate-mediated changes in drug context-induced motivation for cocaine involve distinct neuropharmacological mechanisms within the core and shell subregions of the NAC, with the stimulation of mGlu1 and AMPA/kainate receptors in the NAC core and the stimulation of AMPA/kainate, but not mGlu1, receptors in the NAC shell being necessary for this phenomenon.

Interaction between the basolateral amygdala and dorsal hippocampus is critical for cocaine memory reconsolidation and subsequent drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

Contextual stimulus control over instrumental drug-seeking behavior relies on the reconsolidation of context-response-drug associative memories into long-term memory storage following retrieval-induced destabilization. According to previous studies, the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and dorsal hippocampus (DH) regulate cocaine-related memory reconsolidation; however, it is not known whether these brain regions interact or independently control this phenomenon. To investigate this question, rats were trained to lever press for cocaine reinforcement in a distinct environmental context followed by extinction training in a different context. Rats were then briefly re-exposed to the cocaine-paired context to destabilize cocaine-related memories, or they were exposed to an unpaired context. Immediately thereafter, the rats received unilateral microinfusions of anisomycin (ANI) into the BLA plus baclofen/muscimol (B/M) into the contralateral (BLA/DH disconnection) or ipsilateral DH, or they received contralateral or ipsilateral microinfusions of vehicle. They then remained in their home cages overnight or for 21 d, followed by additional extinction training and a test of cocaine-seeking behavior (nonreinforced active lever responding). BLA/DH disconnection following re-exposure to the cocaine-paired context, but not the unpaired context, impaired subsequent drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior relative to vehicle or ipsilateral ANI + B/M treatment. Prolonged home cage stay elicited a time-dependent increase, or incubation, of drug-context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior, and BLA/DH disconnection inhibited this incubation effect despite some recovery of cocaine-seeking behavior. Thus, the BLA and DH interact to regulate the reconsolidation of cocaine-related associative memories, thereby facilitating the ability of drug-paired contexts to trigger cocaine-seeking behavior and contributing to the incubation of cocaine-seeking behavior.

Interaction of the basolateral amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex is critical for drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

The basolateral amygdala (BLA) and lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) are critical elements of the neural circuitry that regulates drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. Given the existence of dense reciprocal anatomical connections between these brain regions, this study tested the hypothesis that serial information processing by the BLA and OFC is necessary for drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to lever press for un-signaled cocaine infusions (0.15 mg/infusion, i.v.) in a distinct environment (cocaine-paired context) then underwent extinction training in a different environment (extinction context). During four subsequent test sessions, rats were re-exposed to the cocaine-paired and extinction contexts in order to assess cocaine-seeking behavior (non-reinforced active lever responding). Immediately before each test session, rats received microinfusions of the GABA(A)/GABA(B) agonist cocktail, baclofen+muscimol (BM: 1.0/.01 mM), or vehicle unilaterally into the BLA plus the contralateral or ipsilateral OFC, or unilaterally into the OFC alone. Exposure to the previously cocaine-paired context, but not the extinction context, reinstated extinguished cocaine-seeking behavior. BM-induced unilateral OFC inactivation failed to alter this behavior, similar to the effect of unilateral BLA inactivation in our previous study (Fuchs et al, 2007). Conversely, neural inactivation of the BLA plus the contralateral or ipsilateral OFC equally attenuated drug context-induced cocaine seeking without altering food-reinforced instrumental responding, relative to vehicle pretreatment. These findings suggest that the BLA and OFC co-regulate drug context-induced motivation for cocaine either through sequential information processing via intra- and interhemispheric connections or by providing converging input to a downstream brain region.

Prefrontal cortical regulation of drug seeking in animal models of drug relapse.

Prefrontal cortical dysfunction is thought to underlie maladaptive behaviors displayed by chronic drug users, most notably the high propensity for relapse that severely impedes successful treatment of drug addiction. In animal models of drug relapse, exposure to drug-associated stimuli, small amounts of drug, and acute stressors powerfully reinstate drug seeking by critically engaging the prefrontal cortex, with the anterior cingulate, prelimbic, infralimbic, and orbitofrontal subregions making distinct contributions to drug seeking. Hence, from an addiction treatment perspective, it is necessary to fully explicate the involvement of the prefrontal cortex in drug relapse.

Effects of mGluR1 antagonism in the dorsal hippocampus on drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

RATIONALE: The functional integrity of the dorsal hippocampus (DH) is necessary for drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. However, the neuropharmacological mechanisms of this phenomenon are poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: Given the known significance of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), including the mGluR1 subtype, in drug-induced behaviors, the present study was designed to evaluate the contribution of mGluR1s in the DH to drug context-induced reinstatement of extinguished cocaine-seeking behavior. METHODS: Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to lever press for unsignaled cocaine infusions in a distinct environmental context (cocaine-paired context) followed by extinction training in a distinctly different environmental context (extinction context). Using a counterbalanced partial within-subjects testing design, rats were re-exposed to the cocaine-paired context or the extinction context while cocaine-seeking behavior (nonreinforced active lever pressing) was assessed. Prior to each test session, rats received bilateral microinfusions of the highly potent mGluR1-selective antagonist JNJ16259685 (0.6, 30, or 120 pg/0.5 microl per hemisphere) or vehicle into the DH or the overlying somatosensory cortex trunk region (SStr; anatomical control). RESULTS: Intra-DH, but not intra-SStr, JNJ16259685 infusions dose dependently attenuated drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking relative to vehicle treatment, without attenuating instrumental behavior in the extinction context, general motor activity, or food-reinforced instrumental behavior in control experiments. CONCLUSIONS: Stimulation of mGluR1s in the DH is necessary for incentive motivational and/or memory processes that contribute to drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior. These findings indicate that the mGluR1 is an interesting target from an addiction treatment perspective.

Involvement of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex in drug context-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) damage produces impaired decision-making, impulsivity and perseveration and potentially contributes to compulsive drug seeking in cocaine users. To further explore this phenomenon, we assessed the role of the lateral OFC (lOFC) in drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior in the reinstatement model of drug relapse. Rats were trained to lever press for intravenous cocaine infusions in a distinct environmental context (cocaine-paired context) followed by extinction training in a different context (extinction-paired context). Reinstatement of cocaine seeking (non-reinforced lever presses) was assessed in the cocaine context in the absence of response-contingent stimuli. In Experiment 1, we evaluated whether acute inhibition of lOFC output alters context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior by infusing the GABA(B + A) agonists (baclofen + muscimol) or vehicle into the lOFC immediately before exposure to the cocaine-paired context. In Experiments 2 and 3, we assessed how prolonged loss of lOFC output affects drug context-induced cocaine seeking by administering bilateral N-methyl-d-aspartic acid or sham lesions of the lOFC either before or after self-administration and extinction training. Remarkably, IOFC functional inactivation attenuated, post-training lesions failed to alter and pre-training lesions potentiated drug context-induced cocaine seeking without altering responding in the extinction context. These results suggest that neural activity in the lOFC promotes context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior. However, prolonged loss of lOFC output enhances the motivational salience of cocaine-paired contextual stimuli probably by eliciting compensatory neuroadaptations, with the effects of post-training lOFC lesions reflecting an intermediate state of compensatory neuroplasticity. Overall, these findings support the idea that OFC dysfunction may promote cue reactivity and enhance relapse propensity in cocaine users.

Dorsal hippocampal regulation of memory reconsolidation processes that facilitate drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

Exposure to a cocaine-paired context increases the propensity for relapse in cocaine users and prompts cocaine-seeking behavior in rats. According to the reconsolidation hypothesis, upon context re-exposure, established cocaine-related associations are retrieved and can become labile. These associations must undergo reconsolidation into long-term memory to effect enduring stimulus control. The dorsal hippocampus (DH), dorsolateral caudate-putamen and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex are critical for the expression of context-induced cocaine seeking, and these brain regions may also play a role in the reconsolidation of cocaine-related memories that promote this behavior. To test this hypothesis, rats were trained to press a lever for unsignaled cocaine infusions (0.2 mg/infusion, i.v.) in a distinct environmental context (cocaine-paired context), followed by extinction training in a different context (extinction context). Rats were then re-exposed to the cocaine-paired context for 15 min in order to reactivate cocaine-related memories or received comparable exposure to a novel unpaired context. Immediately thereafter, rats received bilateral microinfusions of the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin, the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin or vehicle into one of the above brain regions. After additional extinction training in the extinction context, reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior (i.e., non-reinforced lever presses) was assessed in the cocaine-paired context. Tetrodotoxin, but not anisomycin, administered into the DH inhibited drug context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior in a memory reactivation-dependent manner. Other manipulations failed to alter this behavior. These findings suggest that the DH facilitates the reconsolidation of associative memories that maintain context-induced cocaine-seeking behavior, but it is not the site of anisomycin-sensitive memory restabilization per se.

Amount of training and cue-evoked taste-reactivity responding in reinforcer devaluation.

In two experiments, rats received minimal (16) pairings of one auditory conditioned stimulus (CS) cue with a sucrose reinforcer, and extensive (112) pairings of another auditory CS with that reinforcer. After sucrose was devalued by pairing it with lithium chloride in some rats (Devalue groups) but not others (Maintain groups), taste reactivity (TR) and other responses to unflavored water were assessed in the presence of the auditory CSs alone. The minimally trained CS controlled substantially more evaluative TR responses than the extensively trained CS. Those TR responses were hedonic (positive) in the Maintain groups, but aversive (negative) in the Devalue groups. By contrast, food cup entry and other responses thought not to reflect evaluative taste processing were controlled more by the extensively trained cue. These responses were reduced by sucrose devaluation comparably, regardless of the amount of training. The results suggest rapid changes in the content of learning as conditioning proceeds. Early in training, CSs may be capable of activating preevaluative processing of an absent food reinforcer that includes information about its palatability, but that capability is lost as training proceeds.