Identification of mitochondrial hormone receptors in avian muscle cells.

The major objective of this study was to assess the expression of mitochondrial hormone receptors for progesterone (PR), estrogen (ER), glucocorticoid (GR), thyroid (TR), and insulin (IR) in avian muscle cells (quail muscle 7, QM7) and in breast muscle of quail and broilers. Visualization of receptor location in QM7 cells was accomplished by immunofluorescence. QM7 cells were stained with Mito Tracker Deep Red CMX, fixed in methanol, immune stained with anti-PR, -GR, -TR, -IR, and -ER primary antibodies overnight at 4°C, and visualized with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated secondary antibody. After staining the nucleus with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole, images were obtained by immunofluorescence microscopy. Merged images revealed the presence of all 5 hormone receptors on mitochondria in QM7 cells. Western blot analysis identified; (a) the ß-isoform of the PR, (b) the α-isoform of GR, (c) the α-receptor of TR, (d) the ß-subunit of IR, and (e) the α-isoform of the ER on mitochondria isolated from broiler breast muscle. Similar results were obtained in quail breast muscle mitochondria with the exception that the α-isoform of the GR was not detected. To our knowledge, this is the first report of hormone receptors (PR, TR, GR, IR, and ER) on mitochondria in avian cells. We hypothesize that these receptors could play important roles in regulating mitochondrial function in avian muscle cells.

Enhanced expression of proteins involved in energy production and transfer in breast muscle of pedigree male broilers exhibiting high feed efficiency.

In cells with fluctuating energy demand (e.g., skeletal muscle), a transfer system of proteins across the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes links mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation to cytosolic phosphorylated creatine (PCr) that serves as a phosphate reservoir for rapid repletion of cytosolic adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Crucial proteins of this energy transfer system include several creatine kinase (CK) isoforms found in the cytosol and mitochondria. In a recent proteomic study (Kong et al., 2016), several components of this system were up-regulated in high feed efficiency (FE) compared to low FE breast muscle; notably adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), voltage dependent activated channel (VDAC), the brain isoform of creatine kinase (CK-B), and several proteins of the electron transport chain. Reexamination of the original proteomic dataset revealed that the expression of two mitochondrial CK isoforms (CKMT1A and CKMT2) had been detected but were not recognized by the bioinformatics program used by Kong et al. (2016a). The CKMT1A isoform was up-regulated (7.8-fold, P = 0.05) in the high FE phenotype but there was no difference in CKMT2 expression (1.1-fold, P = 0.59). From these findings, we hypothesize that enhanced expression of the energy production and transfer system in breast muscle of the high FE pedigree broiler male could be fundamentally important in the phenotypic expression of feed efficiency.

Effects of In Ovo feeding of dextrin-iodinated casein in broilers: I. Hatch weights and early growth performance.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of in ovo feeding of dextrin (Dext) and iodinated casein (IC) on hatch and early growth in broilers. Three experiments were conducted at a commercial hatchery using a commercial Inovoject™ system with treatments occurring in conjunction with vaccination at transfer from incubator to hatcher units (18.5 to 19 d embryonic development). In all 3 experiments, approximately 15,000 eggs (2,500 eggs per group) were treated and transferred to a single hatcher unit. Treatments in Exp. 1 consisted of buffered saline solution alone (Control, Cont) or a dextrin solution (Dext, 18% maltodextrin, 10% potato starch dextrin) containing zero, 80, 240, 720, or 2,160 µg IC/mL. The results of this initial experiment indicated that broiler chicks at hatch that received 240 and 720 µg IC/mL in Dext were heavier (P < 0.05) compared to the other treatment groups; there were no differences in hatchability between groups. Based on these findings, subsequent studies used treatments of zero, 240, and 480 µg/mL IC in Dext or Cont. In Exp. 2, hatch weights in all treatment groups were higher (P < 0.05) compared to those receiving Cont. In Exp. 3, chicks given Dext alone or 240 and 480 µg/mL in saline weighed less at hatch compared to the other treatment groups. However, chicks provided Dext alone in Exp. 3 had less weight loss after a 24-hour holding period compared to the other groups. All treatment groups exhibited greater weight gain from one to 10 d compared to the Cont group. The results indicate that in ovo feeding of broiler embryos with Dext containing 240 and 480 µg IC/mL may have beneficial effects on broiler hatch weights and early growth rate.

Effect of in ovo feeding of dextrin-iodinated casein in broilers: II. Hatch window and growth performance.

Studies were conducted using a commercial InovojectTM system to determine effects of in ovo feeding of dextrin and iodinated casein (IC) on hatch and posthatch growth in broilers. At ∼18.5 d embryonic development, eggs were treated with 0, 240, or 480 µg IC/mL in saline (Cont, IC240, and IC480) or dextrin (Dext, DextIC240 and DextIC480). The Dext solution consisted of 18% maltodextrin and 10% potato starch dextrin; saline was the vehicle used by the company for in ovo vaccination. The volume for all in ovo treatments was 50 µL/injection. Eggs in Experiment 1 were transferred to a commercial hatcher unit whereas eggs in Experiments 2 and 3 were transferred to a research hatcher unit to assess effects of treatments on timing of hatch. At hatch, chicks were randomly selected and placed in floor pens and grown to 6 wk. In Experiment 1, there were no differences in hatch weights, but broilers provided Dext IC240 in ovo were heavier (P < 0.05) at 6 wk compared to other treatments with the exception of the Dext IC240 group. In Experiment 2, hatch weights were heavier (P < 0.05) in chicks receiving IC240 and DexIC480 treatments compared to Controls. At 6 wk, broilers in all treatments were heavier (P < 0.05) than Cont with the exception of IC480. In Experiment 3, hatch was stimulated by IC240 (in saline), but was delayed by Dext IC240. Serum analysis of ß-hydroxybutyrate (µM/mL), as an indicator of ketone accumulation from fat metabolism of chicks held in chick boxes for 24 h posthatch (to simulate delay in placement after hatch), indicated that chicks in the IC240 group (that hatched earlier) had higher blood ketones compared to chicks that received Dext or DextIC240 in ovo (that hatched later). We conclude dextrin and iodinated casein (240 µg/mL) provided in ovo (∼18.5 d of embryonic development) has the potential to improve chick quality and posthatch body weight by delaying or narrowing hatch window.

Cell bioenergetics in Leghorn male hepatoma cells and immortalized chicken liver cells in response to 4-hydroxy 2-nonenal-induced oxidative stress.

The major objectives of this study were to compare cell bioenergetics in 2 avian liver cell lines under control conditions and in response to oxidative stress imposed by 4-hydroxy 2-nonenal (4-HNE). Cells in this study were from a chemically immortalized Leghorn male hepatoma (LMH) cell line and a spontaneously immortalized chicken liver (CELi) cell line. Oxygen consumption rate (OCR) was monitored in specialized microtiter plates using an XF24 Flux Analyzer (Seahorse Bioscience, Billerica, MA). Cell bioenergetics was assessed by sequential additions of oligomycin, carbonyl cyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (FCCP), and antimycin-A that enables the determination of a) OCR linked to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase activity, b) mitochondrial oxygen reserve capacity, c) proton leak, and d) nonmitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase activity. Under control (unchallenged) conditions, LMH cells exhibited higher basal OCR and higher OCR attributed to each of the bioenergetic components listed above compared with CELi cells. When expressed as a percentage of maximal OCR (following uncoupling with FCCP), LMH cells exhibited higher OCR due to ATP synthase and proton leak activity, but lower mitochondrial oxygen reserve capacity compared with CELi cells; there were no differences in OCR associated with nonmitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase activity. Whereas the LMH cells exhibited robust ATP synthase activity up to 50 µM 4-HNE, CELi cells exhibited a progressive decline in ATP synthase activity with 10, 20, and 30 µM 4-HNE. The CELi cells exhibited higher mitochondrial oxygen reserve capacity compared with LMH cells with 0 and 20 µM 4-HNE but not with 30 µM 4-HNE. Both cell lines exhibited inducible proton leak in response to increasing levels of 4-HNE that was evident with 30 µM 4-HNE for CELi cells and with 40 and 50 µM 4-HNE in LMH cells. The results of these studies demonstrate fundamental differences in cell bioenergetics in 2 avian liver-derived cell lines under control conditions and in response to oxidative challenge due to 4-HNE.

Gene expression in breast muscle associated with feed efficiency in a single male broiler line using a chicken 44K microarray. II. Differentially expressed focus genes.

Global RNA expression in breast muscle obtained from a male broiler line phenotyped for high or low feed efficiency (FE) was investigated using microarray analysis. Microarray procedures and validation were reported previously. By using an overlay function of a software program (Ingenuity Pathway Analysis, IPA) in which canonical pathways are projected onto a set of genes, a subset of 27 differentially expressed focus genes were identified. Focus genes that were upregulated in the high FE phenotype were associated with important signal transduction pathways (Jnk, G-coupled, and retinoic acid) or in sensing cell energy status and stimulating energy production that would likely enhance growth and development of muscle tissue. In contrast, focus genes that were upregulated in the low FE muscle phenotype were associated with cytoskeletal architecture (e.g., actin-myosin filaments), fatty acid oxidation, growth factors, or ones that would likely be induced in response to oxidative stress. The results of this study provide additional information on gene expression and the cellular basis of feed efficiency in broilers.

Gene expression in breast muscle associated with feed efficiency in a single male broiler line using a chicken 44K oligo microarray. I. Top differentially expressed genes.

Global RNA expression in breast muscle obtained from a male broiler line phenotyped for high or low feed efficiency (FE) was investigated. Pooled RNA samples (n = 6/phenotype) labeled with cyanine 3 or cyanine 5 fluorescent dyes to generate cRNA probes were hybridized on a 4 × 44K chicken oligo microarray. Local polynomial regression normalization was applied to background-corrected red and green intensities with a moderated t-statistic. Corresponding P-values were computed and adjusted for multiple testing by false discovery rate to identify differentially expressed genes. Microarray validation was carried out by comparing findings with quantitative reverse-transcription PCR. A 1.3-fold difference in gene expression was set as a cutoff value, which encompassed 20% (782 of 4,011) of the total number of genes that were differentially expressed between FE phenotypes. Using an online software program (Ingenuity Pathway Analysis), the top 10 upregulated genes identified by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis in the high-FE group were generally associated with anabolic processes. In contrast, 7 of the top 10 downregulated genes in the high-FE phenotype (upregulated in the low-FE phenotype) were associated with muscle fiber development, muscle function, and cytoskeletal organization, with the remaining 3 genes associated with self-recognition or stress-responding genes. The results from this study focusing on only the top differentially expressed genes suggest that the high-FE broiler phenotype is derived from the upregulation of genes associated with anabolic processes as well as a downregulation of genes associated with muscle fiber development, muscle function, cytoskeletal organization, and stress response.

Improved hatchability and posthatch performance in turkey poults receiving a dextrin-iodinated casein solution in ovo.

Two experiments were conducted with a commercial turkey company using a commercial egg injection system to investigate the effect of a dextrin-iodinated casein solution injected in ovo at 25 d of incubation on turkey poult hatchability, hatch weight, and growth (6 or 7 d posthatch). In experiment 1, a total of 3,900 turkey eggs (1,300 per group) were injected at 25 d of incubation with either 200 µL of a control (physiological saline) solution or a dextrin solution (18% maltodextrin and 10% potato starch dextrin) with 75 or 375 µg/mL of iodinated casein (DexIC75 or DexIC375, where Dex and IC refer to dextrin and iodinated casein, respectively). Two hundred poults from each group were neck-tagged, weighed (hatch weight), placed in a commercial turkey house within a single brooder ring, and weighed again (7 d posthatch). In experiment 2, a total of 5,200 eggs (2,600 per group) were injected with the control or DexIC75 solution. A total of 600 poults (300 per group) were neck-tagged and hatch weights were obtained, followed by placement in a single brooder ring in a commercial house and a second weighing (6 d posthatch). Eggs in experiments 1 and 2 were obtained from hen flocks that were 33 and 5 wk into the laying cycle, respectively. In experiment 1, the DexIC75 injection resulted in a 1.8% increase (P = 0.03) in hatch weight. In experiment 2, the DexIC75 treatment resulted in a 2.4% increase in hatchability (P = 0.01), a 4.3% increase in hatch weight (P < 0.001), and a 1.8% increase in 6-d poult weights (P < 0.03) compared with controls. Results of this study indicate that a solution containing dextrin and 75 µg/mL of iodinated casein injected into turkey eggs at 25 d of incubation may be used to improve early poult weights, hatchability, or both in commercial turkey production.

Investigation of mitochondrial protein expression and oxidation in heart muscle in low and high feed efficient male broilers in a single genetic line.

The objective of this study was to assess the expression of mitochondrial proteins and oxidized proteins in heart muscle homogenate obtained from male broilers exhibiting either high or low feed efficiency (G:F) phenotypes. Tissue homogenate was prepared from ventricular tissue obtained from broilers with high (0.80+/-0.01, n=8) and low (0.62+/-0.02, n=8) FE. The levels of specific immunoreactive proteins and oxidized proteins (carbonyls) were determined using Western blot analysis. The expression of 6 electron transport chain proteins [complex II, 70S subunit (CII 70S); iron-sulfur-containing protein (ISP), cytochrome b (Cyt b), cytochrome (Cyt c1) (of complex III); and cytochrome oxidase subunit II (COX II) (of complex IV)] and adenine nucleotide translocator 1 (ANT1) were higher in low feed efficiency heart mitochondria, but 1 protein [NAD subunit 6c (NAD6c) (complex I)] was higher in high feed efficiency birds. Protein carbonyl levels, indicative of oxidized proteins, were higher in heart tissue of low compared with high feed efficiency broilers.

Mitochondrial proton leak kinetics and relationship with feed efficiency within a single genetic line of male broilers.

Studies were conducted to assess proton leak kinetics (proton conductance) in breast muscle mitochondria isolated from broiler breeder males within a single genetic line exhibiting either high (HFE) or low (LFE) feed efficiency. Proton leak kinetics were determined by simultaneously measuring mitochondrial membrane potential and state 2 (resting) respiration rate in breast muscle mitochondria as succinate oxidation was progressively decreased by malonate. Control proton conductance was similar in HFE and LFE mitochondria and decreased to a similar extent in both groups in response to BSA. Although treatment of mitochondria with Glu or guanosine diphosphate had no effect, retinal increased and carboxyatractylate alone or in combination with Glu decreased proton conductance relative to control proton conductance in both HFE and LFE mitochondria. After treatment with either guanosine diphosphate or carboxyatractylate alone, proton conductance was lower in HFE compared with LFE mitochondria. With the exception of BSA, proton conductance in HFE mitochondria after the various chemical treatments was either less than or equal to, and never greater than, proton conductance in the LFE mitochondria. The results suggest that there are subtle differences in membrane characteristics (e.g., lipids, integral membrane proteins) that affect proton conductance in broiler muscle mitochondria that may in turn play a role in the phenotypic expression of feed efficiency.

Differential expression of mitochondrial and extramitochondrial proteins in lymphocytes of male broilers with low and high feed efficiency.

Studies were conducted to investigate relationships between mitochondrial and extramitochondrial protein expression, and protein oxidation in lymphocytes obtained from broilers in which individual feed efficiencies were obtained. Lymphocytes were isolated from male broilers from a single line that were shown to exhibit either low (0.48 +/- 0.02, n = 8) or high (0.68 +/- 0.01, n = 7) feed efficiency (FE). Western blot analysis showed that, compared with lymphocytes from high FE broilers, lymphocytes from low FE broilers exhibited a) higher amounts of oxidized proteins (protein carbonyls), b) lower amounts of 3 mitochondrial proteins [core I, cyt c 1 (complex III), and ATP synthase (complex V)], and c) higher amounts of 2 proteins [30 S (complex II) and COX II (complex IV)]. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed that the intensities of 25 protein spots from pooled samples of lymphocytes from high and low FE broilers differed by 5-fold or more. Three of these protein spots were picked from the gel and subjected to matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry analysis. One protein spot of ~33 kDa was tentatively identified by MALDI-TOF as a fragment of collapsin-2, a component of semaphorin 3D. The results of this study provide further evidence of increased oxidation associated with low FE and further evidence of differential protein expression associated with the phenotypic expression of feed efficiency.

Feed efficiency and mitochondrial function.

Studies have been conducted in our laboratory to assess differences in mitochondrial function and biochemistry in male broilers with high and low feed efficiency (FE) from the same genetic line and fed the same diet. Mitochondria obtained from broilers with low FE exhibited greater uncoupling of the electron transport chain (ETC) that was apparently due to site-specific defects in electron transport resulting in higher amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) compared with high FE mitochondria. Higher amounts of ROS production in Low FE mitochondria were likely responsible for higher protein carbonyl levels, indicative of higher protein oxidation compared with High FE mitochondria and tissue. In turn, higher protein damage in Low FE mitochondria may have contributed to lower activity of electron transport chain complexes relative to values observed in high FE mitochondria. Low FE mitochondria did not exhibit a compromised ability to carryout oxidative phosphorylation, and although there were differences in expression of certain electron transport chain proteins, there was nothing that would indicate that differences in coupling and respiratory chain activity could be due to a general decrease in protein expression between low and high FE mitochondria. The results of these studies provide insight into understanding cellular mechanisms associated with the phenotypic expression of feed efficiency in broilers.

Compromised liver mitochondrial function and complex activity in low feed efficient broilers are associated with higher oxidative stress and differential protein expression.

Variations in broiler growth and efficiency have been explained in part by differences in mitochondrial function and biochemistry in broilers. To further our knowledge in this regard, 2 experiments were carried out to determine the relationships of a) mitochondrial function and activities of various electron transport chain (ETC) complexes; b) production of H2O2, a reactive oxygen species (ROS), and its association with protein oxidation; and c) mitochondrial protein expression in liver of a single line male broilers with low or high feed efficiency (FE, n = 5 to 8 per group). Mitochondrial function and complex activities were measured polarographically and spectrophotometrically, respectively. H2O2 was measured fluorimetrically, whereas oxidized protein (carbonyls) and specific mitochondrial proteins were analyzed using Western blots. Mitochondrial function (ETC coupling) and activities of ETC complexes (I, II, III, and IV) were higher in high FE compared with low FE broilers. H2O2 and protein carbonyls were higher in the livers of low FE broilers than in high FE broilers. Whereas the expression of 4 immunoreactive proteins [NAD3 (complex I), subunit VII (complex III), cytochrome c oxidase subunits (COX) II, and COX IVb (complex IV)] were higher in low FE liver mitochondria and 2 proteins [subunit 70 (complex II) and a-ATP synthase (complex V)] were higher in high FE birds, there were no differences between groups in the expression of 18 other mitochondrial proteins. In conclusion, increases in oxidative stress in low FE broilers were caused by or may contribute to differences in mitochondrial function (ETC coupling and complex activities) or the differential expression of steady-state levels of some mitochondrial proteins in the liver. Understanding the role of oxidative stress in Low FE broilers will provide clues in understanding the cellular basis of feed efficiency.

Low feed efficient broilers within a single genetic line exhibit higher oxidative stress and protein expression in breast muscle with lower mitochondrial complex activity.

The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of low or high feed efficiency (FE) on a) protein oxidation, b) the activities of various respiratory chain complexes, and c) expression of various mitochondrial proteins in male broilers within a single genetic line. Tissue homogenate or mitochondria were isolated from breast muscle of broilers with high (0.80 +/- 0.01) and low FE (0.62 +/- 0.02). The complex activities were measured spectrophotometrically, and the levels of oxidized protein (carbonyl) and immunoreactive mitochondrial proteins were analyzed using Western blots. Protein carbonyl levels were higher in low FE compared with high FE broilers breast muscle, which indicated enhanced protein oxidation in low FE mitochondria. Activities of all respiratory chain complexes (I, II, III, IV) were higher in high FE compared with low FE broilers for breast mitochondria. Whereas the expression of immunoreactive proteins was higher in low FE muscle mitochondria for 5 mitochondrial proteins [core I, cyt c1, cyt b (complex III), COX II (cytochrome c oxidase subunit II, complex IV), and adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT1)], there were no differences between groups in the expression of 9 other respiratory chain protein subunits associated with complexex I, II, III, IV, and V. SDS-PAGE revealed a protein band of 47 kDa that was expressed at a higher level in low FE compared with high FE mitochondria. The differential expression of certain mitochondrial proteins and the 47-kDa band might be a compensatory response either to the lower complex activities or increased protein oxidation observed in low FE birds.

Validity of two brief measures: the General Abilities Measure for Adults and the Shiple Institute of Living Scale.

The present investigation examined the concurrent validity of the General Ability Measure for Adults by Naglieri and Bardos (1997) and the Shipley Institute of Living Scale by Zachary (1991). These scales were administered to 129 college students who ranged in age from 18 to 55 years (M age=24.8 yr.). Pearson correlations were computed to evaluate the association of scores on these measures. Significant small correlations were found for GAMA IQ scores with scores on the Shipley Verbal (r = .29) and Total scales (r = .28) but not with scores on the Shipley Abstraction subscale (r=.11). Although the GAMA has been presented as a measure of general intelligence, only partial support for this view was found.

The validity of the Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence as a measure of fluid intelligence.

The current investigation examined the validity of the Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI), an intelligence test that is purported to measure fluid intelligence. The CTONI was evaluated in comparison with the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT), an established measure of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Ninety-seven adults were administered these instruments in counterbalanced order. Results indicated that the sample's mean CTONI Nonverbal IQ (NIQ) deviated significantly from the mean KAIT Crystallized, Fluid, and Composite IQs. The CTONI mean NIQ underestimated KAIT Fluid and Composite IQs when individual participants were subdivided into existing KAIT ability categories and mean score comparisons were made. Results also indicated that the CTONI NIQ correlated strongly and positively with the KAIT Composite and Fluid IQs. Furthermore, the CTONI Geometric NIQ scale clearly demonstrated discriminant and convergent validity, whereas, the CTONI Pictorial NIQ (PNIQ) did not.

Comparison of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition with university students.

This study examined the relationship between the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition (PPVT-III) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) using 40 adults who ranged in age from 18 to 41 (mean age of 22 years). Participants were administered the PPVT-III and WAIS-III in counterbalanced fashion to control for order effects. Results revealed that the PPVT-III score was related to the WAIS-III Verbal IQ (VIQ) and Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) scores but unrelated to the Performance IQ (PIQ) score. In addition, analyses indicated that, while there were no significant differences between the PPVT-III score and WAIS-III mean FSIQ and PIQ scores, the PPVT-III mean score was significantly lower than the WAIS-III VIQ. Further analysis indicated that the PPVT-III adequately estimated WAIS-III FSIQ and VIQ scores for participants who were classified as Average or High Average on the WAIS-III. However, for participants in the Superior range, the PPVT-III tended to underestimate FSIQ and VIQ scores by approximately 10 points.

The validity of the general ability measure for adults: comparison with WAIS-R IQ scores in a sample of college students with academic difficulties.

The present study investigated the validity of the General Ability Measure for Adults (GAMA) by comparing it to the WAIS-R using a sample of 80 college students reporting learning difficulties. Results indicated that the mean GAMA IQ score did not deviate significantly from the mean WAIS-R IQ scores. The GAMA Full Scale IQ correlated significantly with the WAIS-R PIQ, VIQ, and FSIQ scores. However, the obtained correlation coefficient for the GAMA and WAIS-R PIQ significantly differed from the observed correlation coefficient between the GAMA and WAIS-R VIQ, suggesting that the GAMA was more clearly associated with perceptual skills than verbal abilities. When the correlation coefficients between the GAMA and WAIS-R scores were corrected for the effects of range restriction, the correlation coefficients increased, yet demonstrated the same pattern (e.g., GAMA/PIQ,.69; GAMA/VIQ,.36; GAMA/FSIQ,.60). The GAMA s accuracy in predicting individual student performance on the WAIS-R FSIQ also was examined.

Comparing verbal and nonverbal intellectual functioning with the TONI and WISC-R.

Cognitive ability has long been conceptualized as having verbal and nonverbal components. In this study scores on the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence were correlated with those on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children--Revised for 74 subjects 6 to 15 years old which yielded Pearson values of .55 between the Verbal Scale standard scores and the nonverbal test and .58 with the Performance Scale standard scores and TONI intelligence quotients. Although the TONI has been presented as a nonverbal instrument, the correlations did not support such a view.