Effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines on cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors in immune cells.

AIMS: To investigate the regulation of cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 on immune cells by pro-inflammatory cytokines and its potential relevance to the inflammatory neurological disease, multiple sclerosis (MS). CB1 and CB2 signalling may be anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective in neuroinflammatory diseases. Cannabinoids can suppress inflammatory cytokines but the effects of these cytokines on CB1 and CB2 expression and function are unknown. METHODS: Immune cells from peripheral blood were obtained from healthy volunteers and patients with MS. Expression of CB1 and CB2 mRNA in whole blood cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and T cells was determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Expression of CB1 and CB2 protein was determined by flow cytometry. CB1 and CB2 signalling in PBMC was determined by Western blotting for Erk1/2. RESULTS: Pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α (the latter likely NF-κB dependently) can upregulate CB1 and CB2 on human whole blood and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). We also demonstrate upregulation of CB1 and CB2 and increased IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α mRNA in blood of patients with MS compared with controls. CONCLUSION: The levels of CB1 and CB2 can be upregulated by inflammatory cytokines, which can explain their increase in inflammatory conditions including MS.

Carbamazepine toxic effects in chick cardiomyocyte micromass culture and embryonic stem cell derived cardiomyocyte systems--possible protective role of antioxidants.

The use of carbamazepine (CBZ) during pregnancy increases cardiovascular anomalies. In this study CBZ developmental cardiotoxic effects were evaluated using chick cardiomyocyte micromass (MM) culture and mouse embryonic stem cells derived cardiomyocyte (ESDC) systems. In MM culture, CBZ only inhibited the cardiomyocyte contractile activity, while in ESDC it completely ceased the contractile activity at 200 µM with decreased cell viability and protein content. The antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) supplement in MM and ascorbic acid (AA) in ESDC showed protective effects on CBZ toxicity, but elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were recorded with CBZ treatment only in ESDC. CBZ has also affected cardiac connexin 43 expression in both in vitro systems. Our results indicated CBZ induced ROS stress as mechanism of developmental cardiotoxicity at early stage of cardiogenesis in ESDC system compared to MM system's differentiated cells. These toxic effects can be negated by using antioxidant agent.

Lithium carbonate teratogenic effects in chick cardiomyocyte micromass system and mouse embryonic stem cell derived cardiomyocyte--possible protective role of myo-inositol.

The drug lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) use during pregnancy increases the possibility of cardiovascular anomalies. The earlier studies confirm its phosphatidylinositol cycle (PI) inhibition and Wnt pathways mimicking properties, which might contribute to its teratogenic effects. In this study the toxic effects of Li2CO3 in chick embryonic cardiomyocyte micromass system (MM) and embryonic stem cell derived cardiomyocyte (ESDC) were evaluated, with possible protective role of myo-inositol. In MM system the Li2CO3 did not alter the toxicity estimation endpoints, whereas in ESDC system the cardiomyocytes contractile activity stopped at 1500 µM and above with significant increase in total cellular protein contents. In ESDC system when myo-inositol was added along with Li2CO3 to continue PI cycle, the contractile activity was recovered with decreased protein content. The lithium toxic effects depend on the role of PI cycle at particular stage of cardiogenesis, while relation between myo-inositol and reduced cellular protein contents remains unknown.

Novel vasocontractile role of the P2Y14 receptor: characterization of its signalling in porcine isolated pancreatic arteries.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The P2Y14 receptor is the newest member of the P2Y receptor family; it is G(i/o) protein-coupled and is activated by UDP and selectively by UDP-glucose and MRS2690 (2-thiouridine-5'-diphosphoglucose) (7-10-fold more potent than UDP-glucose). This study investigated whether P2Y14 receptors were functionally expressed in porcine isolated pancreatic arteries. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Pancreatic arteries were prepared for isometric tension recording and UDP-glucose, UDP and MRS2690 were applied cumulatively after preconstriction with U46619, a TxA2 mimetic. Levels of phosphorylated myosin light chain 2 (MLC2) were assessed with Western blotting. cAMP concentrations were assessed using a competitive enzyme immunoassay kit. KEY RESULTS: Concentration-dependent contractions with a rank order of potency of MRS2690 (10-fold) > UDP-glucose ≥ UDP were recorded. These contractions were reduced by PPTN {4-[4-(piperidin-4-yl)phenyl]-7-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-naphthoic acid}, a selective antagonist of P2Y14 receptors, which did not affect responses to UTP. Contraction to UDP-glucose was not affected by MRS2578, a P2Y6 receptor selective antagonist. Raising cAMP levels and forskolin, in the presence of U46619, enhanced contractions to UDP-glucose. In addition, UDP-glucose and MRS2690 inhibited forskolin-stimulated cAMP levels. Removal of the endothelium and inhibition of endothelium-derived contractile agents (TxA2, PGF(2α) and endothelin-1) inhibited contractions to UDP glucose. Y-27632, nifedipine and thapsigargin also reduced contractions to the agonists. UDP-glucose and MRS2690 increased MLC2 phosphorylation, which was blocked by PPTN. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: P2Y14 receptors play a novel vasocontractile role in porcine pancreatic arteries, mediating contraction via cAMP-dependent mechanisms, elevation of intracellular Ca²âº levels, activation of RhoA/ROCK signalling and MLC2, along with release of TxA2, PGF(2α) and endothelin-1.

In-cell Western™ detection of organic cation transporters in bronchial epithelial cell layers cultured at an air-liquid interface on Transwell(®) inserts.

INTRODUCTION: Organic cation transporters (OCT) have been shown to mediate the transport of inhaled drugs in bronchial epithelial cells and might have important physiological functions in the airway epithelium. However, a quantitative method to evaluate OCT protein expression in physiologically relevant airway epithelial cell culture models is currently lacking. In-cell Western™ (ICW) techniques might fill that gap but to date, have only been performed on cells grown on 96 or 384-well microplates. METHODS: An ICW assay was designed for measuring levels of the different OCT subtypes in intact layers of the human bronchial epithelial Calu-3 cell line cultured at an air-liquid interface on Transwell(®) inserts. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as the internal standard for normalisation of cell number between the layers. The protocol was subsequently validated by exposing cell layers to compounds known to cause variations in OCT expression. RESULTS: Antibody signals above the background fluorescence were detected for OCT1, OCT3, OCTN1 and OCTN2 but not for OCT2 in 21day old Calu-3 layers, in agreement with previous studies which had reported OCT2 was absent in the Calu-3 cell line. Furthermore, increases in the fluorescence signal associated with OCT1, OCTN1 and OCTN2 were obtained following treatment of the layers with, respectively, the nitric oxide inducer sodium nitroprusside, the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α (PPARα) agonist fenofibrate or the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone, confirming the reliability of the ICW method developed. However, a suitable positive control for OCT3 could not be identified. DISCUSSION: This novel ICW assay can be exploited to quantify basal OCT protein expression as well as changes in transporter levels following external stimuli in various in vitro models. It can also be easily adapted to probe any protein in epithelial layers maintained on permeable filters.

Differential detection of phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3 alpha and beta depending on blocking conditions.

It is generally recommended that immunoblots using phosphospecific antibodies be performed using bovine serum albumin (BSA) instead of milk. There are two subtypes of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), GSK3 alpha and GSK3 beta, with apparent molecular weights of 51 and 49 kDa, respectively. Here we show that immunoblots performed using 5% milk allow the detection of both phosphorylated GSK3 alpha and phosphorylated GSK3 beta, whereas only phosphorylated GSK3 alpha is visible when immunoblots are performed using 3% BSA.

Evidence for the expression of multiple uracil nucleotide-stimulated P2 receptors coupled to smooth muscle contraction in porcine isolated arteries.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The uracil nucleotides UDP and UTP have been reported to activate P2Y2, P2Y4 and P2Y6 receptors to cause vasoconstriction. We have performed a comparative analysis of these receptors in endothelium-denuded smooth muscle from porcine isolated coronary and ear arteries, using pharmacological and molecular tools. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Tissue segments were used to construct non-cumulative concentration response curves for UTP and UDP, in the absence and presence of the P2 receptor antagonists PPADS or suramin. RT-PCR and immunoblot analyses were employed to define gene expression and immunoreactivity for P2Y2, P2Y4 and P2Y6 receptors. KEY RESULTS: In the coronary artery, UTP-evoked contractile responses were reduced in the presence of suramin, but not PPADS, while the smaller responses to UDP were unaffected by either antagonist. In the ear artery, contractile responses to UDP were much smaller than those to UTP; responses to UTP were inhibited by both PPADS and suramin. RT-PCR suggested predominant expression of P2Y2 receptors in the coronary artery, while P2Y4 and P2Y6 receptor gene expression appeared equivalent in both tissues. Immunoblot analyses provided evidence for P2Y6 receptors in both tissues, with equivocal evidence of P2Y2 and P2Y4 receptor immunoreactivities. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: We conclude that UTP-evoked contraction of porcine coronary artery smooth muscle appears to be predominantly P2Y2-mediated, while the ear artery appears to express a uracil nucleotide-sensitive P2 receptor(s) which fails to fit readily into the current classification.

Role of cytosolic phospholipase A2 in the enhancement of alpha2-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction by the thromboxane-mimetic U46619 in the porcine isolated ear artery: comparison with vasopressin-enhanced responses.

Pre-contraction with the thromboxane-mimetic U46619 enhances the subsequent alpha(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction in the porcine ear artery through an enhanced activation of ERK-MAP kinase. In this study we determined the role of cPLA(2) in this enhanced response, and determined whether vasopressin is also able to enhance alpha(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction through the same pathway. The cPLA(2) inhibitors AACOCF3 (50 microM) and MAFP (50 microM) both inhibited the U46619-enhanced alpha(2)-adrenoceptor response, but had no effect on the direct alpha(2)-adrenoceptor response. AACOCF3 also inhibited the enhanced ERK activation associated with the enhanced alpha(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction. Pre-contraction with arachidonic acid mimicked the effect of U46619 by enhancing the contractile response to the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist UK14304 (1 microM) and enhancing the alpha(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated ERK activation. Pre-contraction with vasopressin also enhanced the contractile response to UK14304, but neither PD98059 (50 microM) nor AACOCF3 (50 microM) had any effect this vasopressin-enhanced response, indicating that neither the ERK pathway, nor cPLA(2) are involved in vasopressin-enhanced responses. The alpha(2)-adrenceptor-stimulated activation of ERK was also unaffected by pre-contraction with vasopressin. On the other hand, inhibition of PKCzeta inhibited the enhanced alpha(2)-adrenoceptor contraction after pre-contraction with both U46619 and vasopressin. This study demonstrates that alpha(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction can be enhanced through two different pathways-one dependent upon the enhanced activation of ERK-MAP kinase through activation of cPLA(2), and the other through a different, ERK/cPLA(2)-independent pathway.

Social threat and novel cage stress-induced sustained extracellular-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation but differential modulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the hippocampus of NMRI mice.

The extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway has a key role in cell survival and brain plasticity, processes that are impaired following exposure to stressful situations. We have recently validated two repeated intermittent stress procedures in male NMRI mice, social threat and repeated exposure to a novel cage, which result in clear behavioral effects following 4 weeks of application. The present results demonstrate that both repeated intermittent stress procedures alter the activity of the ERK1/2 pathway in the brain, as shown by changes in phosphorylated ERK1/2 (phospho-ERK1/2) protein expression and in the expression of downstream proteins: phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), in the hippocampus, the frontal cortex and the hypothalamus. The hippocampus showed greater responsiveness to stress as the two stressors increased phospho-ERK1/2 and BDNF expression under acute condition. Following repeated stress, hyperphosphorylation of ERK1/2 was associated with up-regulation of hippocampal BDNF expression in the social threat group but not in mice exposed to novel cage. This lack of a pro-survival effect of ERK1/2 with repeated novel cage exposure may constitute an early event in stress-mediated brain pathology. The sustained BDNF up-regulation in the hippocampi of mice subjected to repeated social threat could be related to rewarding aspects of aggressive interactions, suggested by our previous studies.

Non-competitive antagonism of beta(2)-agonist-mediated cyclic AMP accumulation by ICI 118551 in BC3H1 cells endogenously expressing constitutively active beta(2)-adrenoceptors.

Constitutive activity of the beta(2)-adrenoceptor, which is sensitive to inhibition by an inverse agonist such as ICI 118551, has been readily demonstrated in recombinant systems expressing constitutively-active mutant receptors or over-expressing the wild-type beta(2)-adrenoceptor. Here we demonstrate the presence of constitutive beta(2)-adrenoceptor activity in BC3H1 cells which endogenously express this receptor. In BC3H1 cells, only ICI 118551 behaved as an inverse agonist at beta(2)-adrenoceptors, while propranolol, ICI 118551, atenolol and, to a lesser extent, alprenolol exhibited inverse agonism in CHO-beta(2)4 cells transfected with cDNA for the human beta(2)-adrenoceptor (310 fmol. mg protein(-1)). The level of expression of beta2-adrenoceptors in BC3H1 cells was not high (78 fmol.mg protein-1) and the efficiency of receptor - effector coupling in this cell line was much lower than in the recombinant CHO-beta(2)4 cells (as judged by the partial agonist nature of both salbutamol and clenbuterol). ICI 118551 (log K(D)-9.73+/-0.07) and propranolol (log K(D)-9.25+/-0.12) both behaved as conventional competitive antagonists of isoprenaline-stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation in high expressing CHO-beta(2)4 cells. In contrast, ICI 118551 appeared to act as a non-competitive antagonist in BC3H1 cells and in low expressing CHO-beta(2)6 cells (50 fmol.mg protein(-1)). This non-competitive effect of ICI 118551 in BC3H1 cells was also observed when either salbutamol was used as agonist, or the incubation period with isoprenaline was extended to 30 min. The possibility that these effects of ICI 118551 are due to an interaction with different affinity states (R, R* and R') of the receptor is discussed.

Influence of receptor number on the stimulation by salmeterol of gene transcription in CHO-K1 cells transfected with the human beta2-adrenoceptor.

1. The beta2-agonist salmeterol is a potent relaxant of airway smooth muscle with a long duration of action. Previous studies of cyclic AMP accumulation, however, have indicated that salmeterol is a low efficacy beta2-agonist when compared to isoprenaline. Here we have compared the properties of salmeterol and isoprenaline as stimulants of gene transcription in CHO-K1 cells transfected with the human beta2-adrenoceptor to different levels (50 and 310 fmol mg protein(-1)). 2. Gene transcription was monitored using a secreted placental alkaline phosphate (SPAP) reporter gene under the transcriptional control of six cyclic AMP response element (CRE) sequences. 3. In the lower expressing cells (CHO-beta2/6), salmeterol produced a maximal cyclic AMP response that was only 22% that of that obtained with isoprenaline. In contrast in the higher expressing cells (CHO-beta2/ 4), the two maxima were of similar magnitude. 4. Salmeterol was a more potent stimulant of gene transcription, producing the same maximal response as isoprenaline in both cell lines. Furthermore, in the CHO-beta2/4 cells, Salmeterol was 50 fold more potent as a stimulant of SPAP secretion than of cyclic AMP accumulation. In contrast, isoprenaline was 24 fold less sensitive as a stimulant of SPAP secretion than of cyclic AMP accumulation. In the presence of serum (10%), the effects of both salmeterol and isoprenaline on gene transcription were augmented. 5. These data suggest that the low efficacy and/or long duration of action of salmeterol, favours a potent stimulation of gene transcription when compared to more efficacious but shorter-lived agonists such as isoprenaline.