An ex vivo sequential ligament transection model of flatfoot.

BACKGROUND: The ligaments implicated in the earliest stages of developing a progressive collapsing foot deformity are poorly understood. Commonly employed cadaveric flatfoot models are created from simultaneous transection of multiple ligaments, making it difficult to assess early changes in pressure distribution from ligaments critical for maintaining load distribution. A serial transection of ligaments may provide insight into changes in pressure distribution under the foot to identify a potential combination of ligaments that may be involved in early deformities. METHODS: Specimens were loaded using a custom designed axial and tendon loading system. Plantar pressure data for the forefoot and hindfoot were recorded before and after six sequential ligament complex transections. FINDINGS: Sectioning the plantar fascia (first) and short/long plantar ligaments (second) failed to generate appreciable differences in load distribution. Dividing the spring ligament (third) led to changes in hindfoot load distribution with a shift towards the lateral column indicative of hindfoot valgus angulation. All subsequent conditions resulted in similar patterns in hindfoot plantar load distribution. An anterior shift in the center of pressure only occurred after transection of all six ligament complexes. INTERPRETATION: Loss of the plantar fascia and short/long plantar ligaments are not critical in maintaining plantar load distribution or contact area. However, the additional loss of the spring ligament caused notable changes in hindfoot load distribution, indicating the combination of these three ligament complexes is particularly critical for preventing peritalar subluxation. Minimal changes in load distribution occurred when performing additional transections to reach a complete flatfoot deformity.

Disease-Specific Finite element Analysis of the Foot and Ankle.

Finite-element analysis is a computational modeling technique that can be used to quantify parameters that are difficult or impossible to measure externally in a geometrically complex structure such as the foot and ankle. It has been used to improve our understanding of pathomechanics and to evaluate proposed treatments for several disorders, including progressive collapsing foot deformity, ankle arthritis, syndesmotic injury, ankle fracture, plantar fasciitis, diabetic foot ulceration, hallux valgus, and lesser toe deformities. Parameters calculated from finite-element models have been widely used to make predictions about their biomechanical correlates.

A computational model of force within the ligaments and tendons in progressive collapsing foot deformity.

Progressive collapsing foot deformity results from degeneration of the ligaments and posterior tibial tendon (PTT). Our understanding of the relationship between their failures remains incomplete. We sought to improve this understanding through computational modeling of the forces in these soft tissues. The impact of PTT and ligament failures on force changes in the remaining ligaments was investigated by quantifying ligament force changes during simulated ligament and tendon cutting in a validated finite element model of the foot. The ability of the PTT to restore foot alignment was also evaluated by increasing the PTT force in a foot with attenuated ligaments and comparing the alignment angles to the intact foot. We found that failure of any one of the ligaments led to overloading the remaining ligaments, except for the plantar naviculocuneiform, first plantar tarsometatarsal, and spring ligaments, where removing one led to unloading the other two. The combined attenuation of the plantar fascia, long plantar, short plantar, and spring ligaments significantly overloaded the deltoid and talocalcaneal ligaments. Isolated PTT rupture had no effect on foot alignment but did increase the force in the deltoid and spring ligaments. Moreover, increasing the force within the PTT to 30% of body weight was effective at restoring foot alignment during quiet stance, primarily through reducing hindfoot valgus and forefoot abduction as opposed to improving arch collapse. Our findings suggest that early intervention might be used to prevent the progression of deformity. Moreover, strengthening the PTT through therapeutic exercise might improve its ability to restore foot alignment.

Evaluation of assumptions in foot and ankle biomechanical models.

BACKGROUND: A variety of biomechanical models have been used in studies of foot and ankle disorders. Assumptions about the element types, material properties, and loading and boundary conditions are inherent in every model. It was hypothesized that the choice of these modeling assumptions could have a significant impact on the findings of the model. METHODS: We investigated the assumptions made in a number of biomechanical models of the foot and ankle and evaluated their effects on the results of the studies. Specifically, we focused on: (1) element choice for simulation of ligaments and tendons, (2) material properties of ligaments, cortical and trabecular bones, and encapsulating soft tissue, (3) loading and boundary conditions of the tibia, fibula, tendons, and ground support. FINDINGS: Our principal findings are: (1) the use of isotropic solid elements to model ligaments and tendons is not appropriate because it allows them to transmit unrealistic bending and twisting moments and compressive forces; (2) ignoring the difference in elastic modulus between cortical and trabecular bones creates non-physiological stress distribution in the bones; (3) over-constraining tibial motion prevents anticipated deformity within the foot when simulating foot deformities, such as progressive collapsing foot deformity; (4) neglecting the Achilles tendon force affects almost all kinetic and kinematic parameters through the foot; (5) the axial force applied to the tibia and fibula is not equal to the ground reaction force due to the presence of tendon forces. INTERPRETATION: The predicted outcomes of a foot model are highly sensitive to the model assumptions.

The impact of ligament tears on joint contact mechanics in progressive collapsing foot deformity: A finite element study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with longstanding progressive collapsing foot deformity often develop osteoarthritis of the ankle, midfoot, or hindfoot joints, which can be symptomatic or lead to fixed deformities that complicate treatment. The development of deformity is likely caused by ligament degeneration and tears. However, the effect of individual ligament tears on changes in joint contact mechanics has not been investigated. METHODS: A validated finite element model of the foot was used to compare joint contact areas, forces, and pressures between the intact and collapsed foot, and to evaluate the effect of individual ligament tears on joint contact mechanics. FINDINGS: Collapsing the foot resulted in an increase in contact pressure in the subtalar, calcaneocuboid, tibiotalar, medial naviculocuneiform, and first tarsometatarsal joints but a decrease in contact pressure in the talonavicular joint. Rupture of the spring ligament was the main contributor to increased calcaneocuboid and subtalar joint contact pressures and decreased medial naviculocuneiform and first tarsometatarsal joint contact pressures, as well as talonavicular subluxation. Deltoid ligament rupture was the primary source of increased contact pressure in the medial naviculocuneiform, first tarsometatarsal, and tibiotalar joints. INTERPRETATION: Degenerative tearing of the ligaments in flatfoot deformity leads to increased joint contact pressures, primarily in the calcaneocuboid, subtalar, and tibiotalar joints, which has been implicated in the development of osteoarthritis in these joints. An improved understanding of the relationship between ligament tears and joint contact pressures could provide support for the use of ligament reconstructions to prevent the development of arthrosis.

The contribution of the ligaments in progressive collapsing foot deformity: A comprehensive computational study.

The contribution of each of the ligaments in preventing the arch loss, hindfoot valgus, and forefoot abduction seen in progressive collapsing foot deformity (PCFD) has not been well characterized. An improved understanding of the individual ligament contributions to the deformity would aid in selecting among available treatments, optimizing current surgical techniques, and developing new ones. In this study, we evaluated the contribution of each ligament to the maintenance of foot alignment using a finite element model of the foot reconstructed from computed tomography scan images. The collapsed foot was modeled by simulating the failure of all the ligaments involved in PCFD. The ligaments were removed one at a time to determine the impact of each ligament on foot alignment, and then restored one at a time to simulate isolated reconstruction. Our findings show that the failure of any one ligament did not immediately lead to deformity, but that combined failure of only a few (the plantar fascia, long plantar, short plantar, deltoid, and spring ligaments) could lead to significant deformity. The plantar fascia, deltoid, and spring ligaments were primarily responsible for the prevention of arch collapse, hindfoot valgus, and forefoot abduction, respectively. Moreover, to produce deformity, a considerable amount of attenuation in the spring, tibiocalcaneal, interosseous talocalcaneal, plantar naviculocuneiform, and first plantar tarsometatarsal ligaments, but only a small amount in the plantar fascia, long plantar, and short plantar ligaments was needed. The results of this study suggest that the ability of a ligament to prevent deformity may not correlate with its attenuation in a collapsed foot.

Simultaneous soft tissue coverage of both medial and lateral ankle wounds: Sural and rotational flap coverage after revision fixation in an infected diabetic ankle fracture.

AIMS: To describe a case of simultaneous medial and lateral soft tissue coverage for exposed orthopaedic implants in the setting of revision fixation of a non-united ankle fracture. This was achieved using a sural flap as well as a propeller flap. METHODS: Case report. RESULTS: Both the sural and posterior tibial artery based rotational propeller flap healed without incident. The underlying fracture healed successfully and the patient returned to normal shoe wear. CONCLUSIONS: The sural flap in conjunction with the posterior tibial artery based rotational flap is effective in providing simultaneous medial and lateral soft tissue coverage to the ankle.