A Large Proportion of the Neonatal Iron Pool Is Acquired from the Gestational Diet in a Murine Model.

BACKGROUND: Iron is crucial for growth and development, but excess iron is harmful. Neonatal mice have elevated concentrations of circulating iron, but the source of this iron is unclear. This lack of understanding makes it difficult to optimize early life iron balance. OBJECTIVES: Identify the origins of neonatal tissue-specific iron pools using dietary manipulation and cross-fostering murine models. METHODS: To determine whether tissue-specific neonatal iron was primarily acquired during gestation or after birth, pups born to iron-sufficient or iron-deficient dams were cross-fostered, and tissues were harvested at postnatal days 3-5 to measure iron content. A separate set of female mice were fed a diet enriched with the stable iron isotope 57 (57Fe) for 4 generations to replace naturally abundant liver iron isotope 56 (56Fe) stores with 57Fe. To quantify the proportions of neonatal iron acquired during gestation, pups born to dams with 56Fe or 57Fe stores were cross-fostered, and tissues were harvested at postnatal day 3-5 to determine 56Fe:57Fe ratios by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Finally, to quantify the proportion of neonatal iron acquired from the maternal diet, female mice with 56Fe or 57Fe stores switched diets upon mating, and pup tissues were harvested on P0 to determine 56Fe:57Fe ratios by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Perinatal iron deficiency resulted in smaller pups, and gestational iron deficiency resulted in lower neonatal serum and liver iron. Cross-fostering between dams with 56Fe and 57Fe stores demonstrated that ≤70% of neonatal serum, liver, and brain iron were acquired during gestation. Dietary manipulation experiments using dams with 56Fe and 57Fe stores showed that over half of neonatal serum, liver, and brain iron were from the dam's gestational diet rather than preconception iron stores. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides quantitative values for the sources of neonatal iron, which may inform approaches to optimize neonatal iron status.

Redox Potentials of Magnetite Suspensions under Reducing Conditions.

Predicting the redox behavior of magnetite in reducing soils and sediments is challenging because there is neither agreement among measured potentials nor consensus on which Fe(III) | Fe(II) equilibria are most relevant. Here, we measured open-circuit potentials of stoichiometric magnetite equilibrated over a range of solution conditions. Notably, electron transfer mediators were not necessary to reach equilibrium. For conditions where ferrous hydroxide precipitation was limited, Nernstian behavior was observed with an EH vs pH slope of -179 ± 4 mV and an EH vs Fe(II)aq slope of -54 ± 4 mV. Our estimated EHo of 857 ± 8 mV closely matches a maghemite|aqueous Fe(II) EHo of 855 mV, suggesting that it plays a dominant role in poising the solution potential and that it's theoretical Nernst equation of EH[mV] = 855 - 177 pH - 59 log [Fe2+] may be useful in predicting magnetite redox behavior under these conditions. At higher pH values and without added Fe(II), a distinct shift in potentials was observed, indicating that the dominant Fe(III)|Fe(II) couple(s) poising the potential changed. Our findings, coupled with previous Mössbauer spectroscopy and kinetic data, provide compelling evidence that the maghemite/Fe(II)aq couple accurately predicts the redox behavior of stoichiometric magnetite suspensions in the presence of aqueous Fe(II) between pH values of 6.5 and 8.5.

Abiotic reduction of nitrite by Fe(II): a comparison of rates and N2O production.

Abiotic reduction of nitrite (NO2-) by Fe(II) species (i.e., chemodenitrification) has been demonstrated in a variety of natural environments and laboratory studies, and is a potentially significant source of atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. It is, however, unclear how chemodenitrification rates and N2O yields vary among heterogeneous Fe(II) species under similar conditions and whether abiotic reduction competes with biological NO2- reduction. Here, we measured rates of NO2- reduction and extents of N2O production by several Fe(II) species under consistent, environmentally relevant conditions (i.e., pH 7.0, bicarbonate buffer, and 0.1 mM NO2-). Nitrite reduction rates varied significantly among the heterogeneous Fe(II) species with half-lives (t1/2) ranging from as low as an hour to over two weeks following the trend of goethite/Fe(II) ∼ hematite/Fe(II) ∼ magnetites > maghemite/Fe(II) > sediment/Fe(II). Interestingly, we observed no clear trend of increasing NO2- reduction rates with higher magnetite stoichiometry (x = Fe2+/Fe3+). Nitrogen recovery as N2O also varied significantly among the Fe species ranging from 21% to 100% recovery. We further probed both chemodenitrification and biological denitrification in the absence and presence of added aqueous Fe(II) with a sediment collected from the floodplain of an agricultural watershed. While abiotic NO2- reduction by the sediment + Fe(II) was much slower than the laboratory Fe(II) species, we found near complete mass N balance during chemodenitrification, as well as evidence for both abiotic and biological NO2- reduction potentially occurring in the sediment under anoxic conditions. Our results suggest that in redox active sediments and soils both chemodenitrification and biological denitrification are likely to occur simultaneously, and that agricultural watersheds may be significant sources of N2O emissions.

Natural organic matter inhibits Ni stabilization during Fe(II)-catalyzed ferrihydrite transformation.

Trace metals, such as nickel (Ni), are often found associated with ferrihydrite (Fh) in soil and sediment and have been shown to redistribute during Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation of Fh. Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation of Fh, however, is often inhibited when natural organic matter (NOM) is associated with Fh. To explore whether NOM affects the behavior of Ni during Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation of Fh, we tracked Ni distribution, Fe atom exchange, and mineral transformation of Fh and Fh coprecipitated with Suwannee River natural organic matter (SRNOM-Fh). As expected, in the absence of Fe(II), Fh and SRNOM-Fh did not transform to secondary Fe minerals after two weeks. We further observed little difference in Ni adsorption on SRNOM-Fh compared to Fh. In the presence of Fe(II), however, we found that Ni associated with SRNOM-Fh was more susceptible to acid extraction than Fh. Specifically, we found almost double the amount of Ni remaining in the Fh after mild extraction compared to SRNOM-Fh. XRD showed that Fh transformed to goethite and magnetite whereas SRNOM-Fh did not transform despite 57Fe isotope tracer experiments confirmed that SRNOM-Fh underwent extensive atom exchange with aqueous Fe(II). Our findings suggest that Fe atom exchange may not be sufficient for obvious Ni stabilization and that transformation to secondary minerals may be necessary for Ni stabilization to occur.

Abiotic Degradation of Chlorinated Solvents by Clay Minerals and Fe(II): Evidence for Reactive Mineral Intermediates.

For decades, there has been evidence that Fe-containing minerals might contribute to abiotic degradation of chlorinated ethene (CE) plumes. Here, we evaluated whether Fe(II) in clay minerals reduces tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichloroethene (TCE). We found that structural Fe(II) in both low (SWy-2) and high (NAu-1) Fe clay minerals did not reduce PCE or TCE under anoxic conditions. There was also no reduction of PCE or TCE after adding 5 mM dissolved Fe(II) to the clay mineral suspensions. In the presence of high Fe(II) concentrations (20 mM), however, PCE and TCE reduction products were observed in the presence of low Fe-content clay mineral SWy-2. Mössbauer spectroscopy results indicate that a mixed-valent Fe(II)-Fe(III) precipitate formed in the reactive SWy-2 suspensions. In contrast, in suspensions containing 20 mM Fe(II) alone or Fe-free clay mineral (Syn-1), we observed a purely Fe(II)-containing precipitate (Fe(OH)2) and also PCE and TCE reduction products. Interestingly, the amount of CE products decreased in the order of Fe-free clay mineral Syn-1 > Fe(OH)2 > low Fe-content clay mineral SWy-2, suggesting that clay mineral Fe controlled the formation of the reactive mineral phase. Additional experiments with hexachloroethane (HCA) revealed that faster HCA reduction occurred with decreasing clay mineral Fe content. Kinetic modeling yielded invariable second-order rate constants and increasing concentrations of reactive Fe(II) as the Fe(II)/Fe(total) content of the precipitates increased. Our data suggest that clay mineral Fe(III) is a sink for electrons from added Fe(II) that otherwise might have reduced the CEs. Furthermore, our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that active precipitation of Fe(II)-containing reactive mineral intermediates (RMI) may be important to CE reduction and suggest that RMI formation depends on clay mineral presence and Fe content.

Mineral Defects Enhance Bioavailability of Goethite toward Microbial Fe(III) Reduction.

Surface defects have been shown to facilitate electron transfer between Fe(II) and goethite (α-FeOOH) in abiotic systems. It is unclear, however, whether defects also facilitate microbial goethite reduction in anoxic environments where electron transfer between cells and Fe(III) minerals is the limiting factor. Here, we used stable Fe isotopes to differentiate microbial reduction of goethite synthesized by hydrolysis from reduction of goethite that was further hydrothermally treated to remove surface defects. The goethites were reduced by Geobacter sulfurreducens in the presence of an external electron shuttle, and we used ICP-MS to distinguish Fe(II) produced from the reduction of the two types of goethite. When reduced separately, goethite with more defects has an initial rate of Fe(III) reduction about 2-fold higher than goethite containing fewer defects. However, when reduced together, the initial rate of reduction is 6-fold higher for goethite with more defects. Our results suggest that there is a suppression of the reduction of goethite with fewer defects in favor of the reduction of minerals with more defects. In the environment, minerals are likely to contain defects and our data demonstrates that even small changes at the surface of iron minerals may change their bioavailability and determine which minerals will be reduced.

Effect of bicarbonate and phosphate on arsenic release from mining-impacted sediments in the Cheyenne River watershed, South Dakota, USA.

The mobilization of arsenic (As) from riverbank sediments affected by the gold mining legacy in north-central South Dakota was examined using aqueous speciation chemistry, spectroscopy, and diffraction analyses. Gold mining resulted in the discharge of approximately 109 metric tons of mine waste into Whitewood Creek (WW) near the Homestake Mine and Cheyenne River at Deal Ranch (DR), 241 km downstream. The highest concentrations of acid-extractable As measured from solid samples was 2020 mg kg-1 at WW and 385 mg kg-1 at DR. Similar sediment mineralogy between WW and DR was identified using XRD, with the predominance of alumino-silicate and iron-bearing minerals. Alkalinity measured in surface water at both sites ranged from 1000 to 2450 mg L-1 as CaCO3 (10-20 mM HCO3- at pH 7). Batch laboratory experiments were conducted under oxidizing conditions to evaluate the effects of NaHCO3 (0.2 mM and 20 mM) and NaH2PO3 (0.1 and 10 mM) on the mobilization of As. These ions are relevant for the site due to the alkaline nature of the river and nutrient mobilization from the ranch. The range of As(v) release with the NaHCO3 treatment was 17-240 µg L-1. However, the highest release (6234 µg L-1) occurred with 10 mM NaH2PO3, suggesting that As release is favored by competitive ion displacement with PO43- compared to HCO3-. Although higher total As was detected in WW solids, the As(v) present in DR solids was labile when reacted with NaHCO3 and NaH2PO3, which is a relevant finding for communities living close to the river bank. The results from this study aid in a better understanding of As mobility in surface water sites affected by the mining legacy.

Fe(II)-Catalyzed Transformation of Organic Matter-Ferrihydrite Coprecipitates: A Closer Look Using Fe Isotopes.

Ferrihydrite is a common Fe mineral in soils and sediments that rapidly transforms to secondary minerals in the presence of Fe(II). Both the rate and products of Fe(II)-catalyzed ferrihydrite transformation have been shown to be significantly influenced by natural organic matter (NOM). Here, we used enriched Fe isotope experiments and 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy to track the formation of secondary minerals, as well as electron transfer and Fe mixing between aqueous Fe(II) and ferrihydrite coprecipitated with several types of NOM. Ferrihydrite coprecipitated with humic acids transformed primarily to goethite after reaction with Fe(II). In contrast, ferrihydrite coprecipitated with fulvic acids and Suwannee River NOM (SRNOM) resulted in no measurable formation of secondary minerals. Despite no secondary mineral transformation, Mössbauer spectra indicated electron transfer still occurred between Fe(II) and ferrihydrite coprecipitated with fulvic acid and SRNOM. In addition, isotope tracer experiments revealed that a significant fraction of structural Fe in the ferrihydrite mixed with the aqueous phase Fe(II) (∼85%). After reaction with Fe(II), Mössbauer spectroscopy indicated some subtle changes in the crystallinity, particle size, or particle interactions in the coprecipitate. Our observations suggest that ferrihydrite coprecipitated with fulvic acid and SRNOM remains a highly dynamic phase even without ferrihydrite transformation.

Reduction of PCE and TCE by magnetite revisited.

Here we revisit whether the common mixed-valent Fe mineral, magnetite, is a viable reductant for the abiotic natural attenuation of perchloroethylene (PCE) and trichloroethylene (TCE) in anoxic groundwater plumes. We measured PCE and TCE reduction by stoichiometric magnetite as a function of pH and Fe(ii) concentration. In the absence of added Fe(ii), stoichiometric magnetite does not reduce PCE and TCE over a three month period under anoxic conditions. When Fe(ii) is added to magnetite suspensions, PCE and TCE are reduced under Fe(ii) and pH conditions that appear to be controlled by the solubility of ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)2(s). Reduction rates are slow with only 1 to 30% carbon products (primarily acetylene) accumulating over several months. We conducted a similar set of experiments with Fe(OH)2(s) alone and found that, compared to in the presence of magnetite, Fe(OH)2(s) reduces PCE and TCE only at Fe(ii) concentrations that are too high (≥13 mM, 726 mg L-1) to be representative of natural aquifer conditions. Our results suggest that magnetite present in aquifer sediments alone is unlikely to reduce PCE and TCE sufficiently fast to contribute to natural attenuation of PCE and TCE. The lack of compelling evidence for PCE and TCE reduction by magnetite raises important questions regarding the current application of using magnetic susceptibility as a potential indicator for abiotic natural attenuation. Dynamic conditions and high Fe(ii) concentrations that favor active precipitation of minerals, such as Fe(OH)2(s) in the presence of magnetite (or other Fe minerals), however, may lead to PCE and TCE reduction that could help attenuate PCE and TCE plumes.

The Role of Defects in Fe(II)-Goethite Electron Transfer.

Despite substantial experimental evidence for Fe(II)-Fe(III) oxide electron transfer, computational chemistry calculations suggest that oxidation of sorbed Fe(II) by goethite is kinetically inhibited on structurally perfect surfaces. We used a combination of 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy, synchrotron X-ray absorption and magnetic circular dichroism (XAS/XMCD) spectroscopies to investigate whether Fe(II)-goethite electron transfer is influenced by defects. Specifically, Fe L-edge and O K-edge XAS indicates that the outermost few Angstroms of goethite synthesized by low temperature Fe(III) hydrolysis is iron deficient relative to oxygen, suggesting the presence of defects from Fe vacancies. This nonstoichiometric goethite undergoes facile Fe(II)-Fe(III) oxide electron transfer, depositing additional goethite consistent with experimental precedent. Hydrothermal treatment of this goethite, however, appears to remove defects, decrease the amount of Fe(II) oxidation, and change the composition of the oxidation product. When hydrothermally treated goethite was ground, surface defect characteristics as well as the extent of electron transfer were largely restored. Our findings suggest that surface defects play a commanding role in Fe(II)-goethite redox interaction, as predicted by computational chemistry. Moreover, it suggests that, in the environment, the extent of this interaction will vary depending on diagenetic history, local redox conditions, as well as being subject to regeneration via seasonal fluctuations.

Post Gold King Mine Spill Investigation of Metal Stability in Water and Sediments of the Animas River Watershed.

We applied spectroscopy, microscopy, diffraction, and aqueous chemistry methods to investigate the persistence of metals in water and sediments from the Animas River 13 days after the Gold King Mine spill (August 5, 2015). The Upper Animas River watershed, located in San Juan Colorado, is heavily mineralized and impacted by acid mine drainage, with low pH water and elevated metal concentrations in sediments (108.4 ± 1.8 mg kg-1 Pb, 32.4 ± 0.5 mg kg-1 Cu, 729.6 ± 5.7 mg kg-1 Zn, and 51 314.6 ± 295.4 mg kg-1 Fe). Phosphate and nitrogen species were detected in water and sediment samples from Farmington, New Mexico, an intensive agricultural area downstream from the Animas River, while metal concentrations were low compared to those observed upstream. Solid-phase analyses of sediments suggest that Pb, Cu, and Zn are associated with metal-bearing jarosite and other minerals (e.g., clays, Fe-(oxy)hydroxides). The solubility of jarosite at near-neutral pH and biogeochemical processes occurring downstream could affect the stability of metal-bearing minerals in river sediments. This study contributes relevant information about the association of metal mixtures in a heavy mineralized semiarid region, providing a foundation to better understand long-term metal release in a public and agricultural water supply.

Fe(II)-catalyzed recrystallization of goethite revisited.

Results from enriched (57)Fe isotope tracer experiments have shown that atom exchange can occur between structural Fe in Fe(III) oxides and aqueous Fe(II) with no formation of secondary minerals or change in particle size or shape. Here we derive a mass balance model to quantify the extent of Fe atom exchange between goethite and aqueous Fe(II) that accounts for different Fe pool sizes. We use this model to reinterpret our previous work and to quantify the influence of particle size and pH on extent of goethite exchange with aqueous Fe(II). Consistent with our previous interpretation, substantial exchange of goethite occurred at pH 7.5 (≈ 90%) and we observed little effect of particle size between nanogoethite (average size of 81 × 11 nm; ≈ 110 m(2)/g) and microgoethite (average size of 590 × 42 nm; ≈ 40 m(2)/g). Despite ≈ 90% of the bulk goethite exchanging at pH 7.5, we found no change in mineral phase, average particle size, crystallinity, or reactivity after reaction with aqueous Fe(II). At a lower pH of 5.0, no net sorption of Fe(II) was observed and significantly less exchange occurred accounting for less than the estimated proportion of surface Fe atoms in the particles. Particle size appears to influence the amount of exchange at pH 5.0 and we suggest that aggregation and surface area may play a role. Results from sequential chemical extractions indicate that (57)Fe accumulates in extracted Fe(III) goethite components. Isotopic compositions of the extracts indicate that a gradient of (57)Fe develops within the goethite with more accumulation of (57)Fe occurring in the more easily extracted Fe(III) that may be nearer to the surface.

Stable U(IV) complexes form at high-affinity mineral surface sites.

Uranium (U) poses a significant contamination hazard to soils, sediments, and groundwater due to its extensive use for energy production. Despite advances in modeling the risks of this toxic and radioactive element, lack of information about the mechanisms controlling U transport hinders further improvements, particularly in reducing environments where U(IV) predominates. Here we establish that mineral surfaces can stabilize the majority of U as adsorbed U(IV) species following reduction of U(VI). Using X-ray absorption spectroscopy and electron imaging analysis, we find that at low surface loading, U(IV) forms inner-sphere complexes with two metal oxides, TiO2 (rutile) and Fe3O4 (magnetite) (at <1.3 U nm(-2) and <0.037 U nm(-2), respectively). The uraninite (UO2) form of U(IV) predominates only at higher surface loading. U(IV)-TiO2 complexes remain stable for at least 12 months, and U(IV)-Fe3O4 complexes remain stable for at least 4 months, under anoxic conditions. Adsorbed U(IV) results from U(VI) reduction by Fe(II) or by the reduced electron shuttle AH2QDS, suggesting that both abiotic and biotic reduction pathways can produce stable U(IV)-mineral complexes in the subsurface. The observed control of high-affinity mineral surface sites on U(IV) speciation helps explain the presence of nonuraninite U(IV) in sediments and has important implications for U transport modeling.

Reaction of U(VI) with titanium-substituted magnetite: influence of Ti on U(IV) speciation.

Reduction of hexavalent uranium (U(VI)) to less soluble tetravalent uranium (U(IV)) through enzymatic or abiotic redox reactions has the potential to alter U mobility in subsurface environments. As a ubiquitous natural mineral, magnetite (Fe3O4) is of interest because of its ability to act as a rechargeable reductant for U(VI). Natural magnetites are often impure with titanium, and structural Fe(3+) replacement by Ti(IV) yields a proportional increase in the relative Fe(2+) content in the metal sublattice to maintain bulk charge neutrality. In the absence of oxidation, the Ti content sets the initial bulk Fe(2+)/Fe(3+) ratio (R). Here, we demonstrate that Ti-doped magnetites (Fe3 - xTixO4) reduce U(VI) to U(IV). The U(VI)-Fe(2+) redox reactivity was found to be controlled directly by R but was otherwise independent of Ti content (xTi). However, in contrast to previous studies with pure magnetite where U(VI) was reduced to nanocrystalline uraninite (UO2), the presence of structural Ti (xTi = 0.25-0.53) results in the formation of U(IV) species that lack the bidentate U-O2-U bridges of uraninite. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopic analysis indicated that the titanomagnetite-bound U(IV) phase has a novel U(IV)-Ti binding geometry different from the coordination of U(IV) in the mineral brannerite (U(IV)Ti2O6). The observed U(IV)-Ti coordination at a distance of 3.43 Å suggests a binuclear corner-sharing adsorption/incorporation U(IV) complex with the solid phase. Furthermore, we explored the effect of oxidation (decreasing R) and solids-to-solution ratio on the reduced U(IV) phase. The formation of the non-uraninite U(IV)-Ti phase appears to be controlled by availability of surface Ti sites rather than R. Our work highlights a previously unrecognized role of Ti in the environmental chemistry of U(IV) and suggests that further work to characterize the long-term stability of U(IV) phases formed in the presence of Ti is warranted.

Fate of CuO and ZnO nano- and microparticles in the plant environment.

The environmental fate of metal oxide particles as a function of size was assessed by comparing the behavior of CuO or ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) to that of the corresponding microparticles (MPs) in a sand matrix, with and without wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth. After 14 days of incubation in the planted sand, the CuO and ZnO NPs were increased from their nominal sizes of <50 nm and <100 nm, to ~317 nm and ~483 nm, respectively. Accordingly, the negative surface charge of colloids present in aqueous extracts from the sand amended with CuO (-27.0 mV) and ZnO (-10.0 mV) NPs was reduced by the presence of plants, to -19.8 mV and -6.0 mV, respectively. The surface charge of the MPs was not influenced by plants. Plant growth increased dissolution of NPs and MPs of both metal oxides in the sand from <0.3 mg/kg to about 1.0 mg/kg for the CuO products, and from ≤0.6 mg/kg to between 1.0 and 2.2 mg/kg for the Zn products. The NP or MP products reduced wheat root length by ~60% or ~50% from control levels; CuO was more toxic than ZnO. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) analysis showed that treatments with MPs or NPs of ZnO led to similar accumulations of Zn-phosphate species in the shoots, likely from dissolution of ZnO. Exposure to CuO NPs or MPs resulted in similar XAS spectra for Cu in the shoots explained by plant accumulation of both CuO and Cu(I)-sulfur complexes. These findings demonstrate the similarities between commercial NPs and MPs of CuO or ZnO in wheat plants, with greater root toxicity correlating with smaller particle size. Factors from the sand and the plant modified the aggregation or dissolution of both types of particles, thus, influencing their environmental fates.

Influence of Fe(2+)-catalysed iron oxide recrystallization on metal cycling.

Recent work has indicated that iron (oxyhydr-)oxides are capable of structurally incorporating and releasing metals and nutrients as a result of Fe2+-induced iron oxide recrystallization. In the present paper, we briefly review the current literature examining the mechanisms by which iron oxides recrystallize and summarize how recrystallization affects metal incorporation and release. We also provide new experimental evidence for the Fe2+-induced release of structural manganese from manganese-doped goethite. Currently, the exact mechanism(s) for Fe2+-induced recrystallization remain elusive, although they are likely to be both oxide-and metal-dependent. We conclude by discussing some future research directions for Fe2+-catalysed iron oxide recrystallization.

Fe electron transfer and atom exchange in goethite: influence of Al-substitution and anion sorption.

The reaction of Fe(II) with Fe(III) oxides and hydroxides is complex and includes sorption of Fe(II) to the oxide, electron transfer between sorbed Fe(II) and structural Fe(III), reductive dissolution coupled to Fe atom exchange, and, in some cases mineral phase transformation. Much of the work investigating electron transfer and atom exchange between aqueous Fe(II) and Fe(III) oxides has been done under relatively simple aqueous conditions in organic buffers to control pH and background electrolytes to control ionic strength. Here, we investigate whether electron transfer is influenced by cation substitution of Al(III) in goethite and the presence of anions such as phosphate, carbonate, silicate, and natural organic matter. Results from (57)Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy indicate that both Al-substitution (up to 9%) and the presence of common anions (PO(4)(3-), CO(3)(2-), SiO(4)(4-), and humic acid) does not inhibit electron transfer between aqueous Fe(II) and Fe(III) in goethite under the conditions we studied. In contrast, sorption of a long-chain phospholipid completely shuts down electron transfer. Using an enriched isotope tracer method, we found that Al-substitution in goethite (10%), does, however, significantly decrease the extent of atom exchange between Fe(II) and goethite (from 43 to 12%) over a month's time. Phosphate, somewhat surprisingly, appears to have little effect on the rate and extent of atom exchange between aqueous Fe(II) and goethite. Our results show that electron transfer between aqueous Fe(II) and solid Fe(III) in goethite can occur under wide range of geochemical conditions, but that the extent of redox-driven Fe atom exchange may be dependent on the presence of substituting cations such as Al.

Influence of magnetite stoichiometry on U(VI) reduction.

Hexavalent uranium (U(VI)) can be reduced enzymatically by various microbes and abiotically by Fe(2+)-bearing minerals, including magnetite, of interest because of its formation from Fe(3+) (oxy)hydroxides via dissimilatory iron reduction. Magnetite is also a corrosion product of iron metal in suboxic and anoxic conditions and is likely to form during corrosion of steel waste containers holding uranium-containing spent nuclear fuel. Previous work indicated discrepancies in the extent of U(VI) reduction by magnetite. Here, we demonstrate that the stoichiometry (the bulk Fe(2+)/Fe(3+) ratio, x) of magnetite can, in part, explain the observed discrepancies. In our studies, magnetite stoichiometry significantly influenced the extent of U(VI) reduction by magnetite. Stoichiometric and partially oxidized magnetites with x ≥ 0.38 reduced U(VI) to U(IV) in UO(2) (uraninite) nanoparticles, whereas with more oxidized magnetites (x < 0.38) and maghemite (x = 0), sorbed U(VI) was the dominant phase observed. Furthermore, as with our chemically synthesized magnetites (x ≥ 0.38), nanoparticulate UO(2) was formed from reduction of U(VI) in a heat-killed suspension of biogenic magnetite (x = 0.43). X-ray absorption and Mössbauer spectroscopy results indicate that reduction of U(VI) to U(IV) is coupled to oxidation of Fe(2+) in magnetite. The addition of aqueous Fe(2+) to suspensions of oxidized magnetite resulted in reduction of U(VI) to UO(2), consistent with our previous finding that Fe(2+) taken up from solution increased the magnetite stoichiometry. Our results suggest that magnetite stoichiometry and the ability of aqueous Fe(2+) to recharge magnetite are important factors in reduction of U(VI) in the subsurface.