Progesterone receptor modulates ERα action in breast cancer.

Progesterone receptor (PR) expression is used as a biomarker of oestrogen receptor-α (ERα) function and breast cancer prognosis. Here we show that PR is not merely an ERα-induced gene target, but is also an ERα-associated protein that modulates its behaviour. In the presence of agonist ligands, PR associates with ERα to direct ERα chromatin binding events within breast cancer cells, resulting in a unique gene expression programme that is associated with good clinical outcome. Progesterone inhibited oestrogen-mediated growth of ERα(+) cell line xenografts and primary ERα(+) breast tumour explants, and had increased anti-proliferative effects when coupled with an ERα antagonist. Copy number loss of PGR, the gene coding for PR, is a common feature in ERα(+) breast cancers, explaining lower PR levels in a subset of cases. Our findings indicate that PR functions as a molecular rheostat to control ERα chromatin binding and transcriptional activity, which has important implications for prognosis and therapeutic interventions.

Co-regulated gene expression by oestrogen receptor α and liver receptor homolog-1 is a feature of the oestrogen response in breast cancer cells.

Oestrogen receptor α (ERα) is a nuclear receptor that is the driving transcription factor expressed in the majority of breast cancers. Recent studies have demonstrated that the liver receptor homolog-1 (LRH-1), another nuclear receptor, regulates breast cancer cell proliferation and promotes motility and invasion. To determine the mechanisms of LRH-1 action in breast cancer, we performed gene expression microarray analysis following RNA interference for LRH-1. Interestingly, gene ontology (GO) category enrichment analysis of LRH-1-regulated genes identified oestrogen-responsive genes as the most highly enriched GO categories. Remarkably, chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled to massively parallel sequencing (ChIP-seq) to identify genomic targets of LRH-1 showed LRH-1 binding at many ERα binding sites. Analysis of select binding sites confirmed regulation of ERα-regulated genes by LRH-1 through binding to oestrogen response elements, as exemplified by the TFF1/pS2 gene. Finally, LRH-1 overexpression stimulated ERα recruitment, while LRH-1 knockdown reduced ERα recruitment to ERα binding sites. Taken together, our findings establish a key role for LRH-1 in the regulation of ERα target genes in breast cancer cells and identify a mechanism in which co-operative binding of LRH-1 and ERα at oestrogen response elements controls the expression of oestrogen-responsive genes.

Transducin-like enhancer protein 1 mediates estrogen receptor binding and transcriptional activity in breast cancer cells.

Estrogen receptor (ER) binds to distal enhancers within the genome and requires additional factors, such as the Forkhead protein FoxA1, for mediating chromatin interactions. We now show that the human Groucho protein, Transducin-like enhancer protein 1 (TLE1), positively assists some ER-chromatin interactions, a role that is distinct from its general role as a transcriptional repressor. We show that specific silencing of TLE1 inhibits the ability of ER to bind to a subset of ER binding sites within the genome, a phenomenon that results in perturbations in phospho-RNA Pol II recruitment. Furthermore, TLE1 is essential for effective ER-mediated cell division. We have discovered a distinct role for TLE1, as a necessary transcriptional component of the ER complex, where it facilitates ER-chromatin interactions.

ELF5 suppresses estrogen sensitivity and underpins the acquisition of antiestrogen resistance in luminal breast cancer.

We have previously shown that during pregnancy the E-twenty-six (ETS) transcription factor ELF5 directs the differentiation of mammary progenitor cells toward the estrogen receptor (ER)-negative and milk producing cell lineage, raising the possibility that ELF5 may suppress the estrogen sensitivity of breast cancers. To test this we constructed inducible models of ELF5 expression in ER positive luminal breast cancer cells and interrogated them using transcript profiling and chromatin immunoprecipitation of DNA followed by DNA sequencing (ChIP-Seq). ELF5 suppressed ER and FOXA1 expression and broadly suppressed ER-driven patterns of gene expression including sets of genes distinguishing the luminal molecular subtype. Direct transcriptional targets of ELF5, which included FOXA1, EGFR, and MYC, accurately classified a large cohort of breast cancers into their intrinsic molecular subtypes, predicted ER status with high precision, and defined groups with differential prognosis. Knockdown of ELF5 in basal breast cancer cell lines suppressed basal patterns of gene expression and produced a shift in molecular subtype toward the claudin-low and normal-like groups. Luminal breast cancer cells that acquired resistance to the antiestrogen Tamoxifen showed greatly elevated levels of ELF5 and its transcriptional signature, and became dependent on ELF5 for proliferation, compared to the parental cells. Thus ELF5 provides a key transcriptional determinant of breast cancer molecular subtype by suppression of estrogen sensitivity in luminal breast cancer cells and promotion of basal characteristics in basal breast cancer cells, an action that may be utilised to acquire antiestrogen resistance.

Aberrant expression of the neuronal transcription factor FOXP2 in neoplastic plasma cells.

FOXP2 mutation causes a severe inherited speech and language defect, while the related transcription factors FOXP1, FOXP3 and FOXP4 are implicated in cancer. FOXP2 mRNA and protein expression were characterised in normal human tissues, haematological cell lines and multiple myeloma (MM) patients' samples. FOXP2 mRNA and protein were absent in mononuclear cells from different anatomical sites, lineages and stages of differentiation. However, FOXP2 mRNA and protein was detected in several lymphoma (8/20) and all MM-derived cell lines (n = 4). FOXP2 mRNA was expressed in bone marrow samples from 96% of MM patients (24/25), 66.7% of patients with the pre-neoplastic plasma cell proliferation monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) (6/9), but not in reactive plasma cells. The frequency of FOXP2 protein expression in CD138(+) plasma cells was significantly higher in MGUS (P = 0.0005; mean 46.4%) and MM patients (P < or = 0.0001; mean 57.3%) than in reactive marrows (mean 2.5%). FOXP2 (>10% nuclear positivity) was detectable in 90.2% of MM (55/61) and 90.9% of MGUS (10/11) patients, showing more frequent expression than CD56 and labelling 75% of CD56-negative MM (9/12). FOXP2 represents the first transcription factor whose expression consistently differentiates normal and abnormal plasma cells and FOXP2 target genes are implicated in MM pathogenesis.

Expression of BNIP3 correlates with hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1alpha, HIF-2alpha and the androgen receptor in prostate cancer and is regulated directly by hypoxia but not androgens in cell lines.

BACKGROUND: BNIP3 is a hypoxia-induced protein involved in cell death and survival but its role in human tumors is unclear. This study investigated the role of BNIP3 in prostate cancer. METHODS: The expression of BNIP3, the androgen receptor (AR), hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1alpha, HIF-2alpha and the hypoxia regulated gene GLUT1 were assessed in tissue microarrays constructed from 149 radical prostatectomy specimens. Statistics compared expression of these factors between each other, conventional clinicopathological parameters and PSA recurrence. Since an association between BNIP3 and AR and the HIFs was observed, the influence of hypoxia, dihydrotestosterone and the AR blocker, Casodex, was also investigated in prostate cell lines. RESULTS: BNIP3 was expressed in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Eight of 149 (5.5%) tumors showed no expression, 44/149 (29.5%) cases showed exclusively cytoplasmic expression, 17/149 (11.5%) cases showed exclusively nuclear expression and 80/149 (53.5%) cases showed both cytoplasmic and nuclear expression. There was a significant correlation between cytoplasmic BNIP3 expression and Gleason score (P=0.005), age (P=0.02), AR (P=0.001), and GLUT1 (P=0.006). There was a significant correlation between nuclear BNIP3 expression and HIF-1alpha expression (P=0.006) and HIF-2alpha expression (P=0.013) but no correlation between BNIP3 and pre-operative PSA, tumor volume, margin positivity or capsular invasion (all P>0.05). There was an increase in BNIP3 expression under conditions of hypoxia (0.1% 0(2)) but not with dihydrotestosterone stimulation or with Casodex treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that BNIP3 is directly regulated by hypoxia but that there may be a hormonal independent mechanism coordinating the expression of BNIP3 in prostate tumors.

Expression of the forkhead transcription factor FOXP1 is associated with that of estrogen receptor-beta in primary invasive breast carcinomas.

We previously identified a correlation between estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) and the candidate tumour suppressor gene Forkhead Box P1 (FOXP1), whose nuclear protein expression in breast tumours was associated with improved patient survival. However, the expression pattern of FOXP1 in normal breast tissue is more reminiscent of the second receptor, ERbeta, which has an emerging role as a tumour suppressor in breast cancer and critically may underlie the ability of some ERalpha-negative tumours to respond to tamoxifen. In a series of 283 breast cancers, in which ERalpha-positive tumours were treated with tamoxifen, the nuclear expression of ERbeta correlated significantly with ERalpha (p = 0.004), low-tumour grade (p = 0.008) and nuclear FOXP1 (p = 0.01). High-grade tumours exhibited significantly more cytoplasmic ERbeta than the low-grade tumours (p = 0.006). Regression analysis demonstrated that FOXP1 expression was most closely related to nuclear ERbeta (p = 0.021). Neither, nuclear or cytoplasmic ERbeta expression demonstrated prognostic significance. FOXP1 is not estrogen regulated and silencing FOXP1 expression, using siRNA, did not affect ERalpha, ERbeta or progesterone receptor expression, suggesting ER and FOXP1 co-expression may reflect a common regulatory mechanism.

Expression of the forkhead transcription factor FOXP1 is associated both with hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs) and the androgen receptor in prostate cancer but is not directly regulated by androgens or hypoxia.

BACKGROUND: FOXP1 is a member of the winged helix or forkhead transcription factors. Recent studies have indicated possible roles for FOXP1 as a candidate tumor suppressor gene and a potential estrogen receptor (ER) co-regulator in the development of breast cancer. This study investigated whether FOXP1 has a similar relationship to the androgen receptor (AR) in prostate cancer and how these factors relate to the presence of hypoxia. METHODS: FOXP1, the AR and various hypoxia-regulated proteins (HIF-1alpha, HIF-2alpha, and VEGF) were measured with immunohistochemistry using a tissue microarray constructed from 167 archival radical prostatectomies. Statistical analyses compared the co-expression of these factors both with each other and conventional parameters including patient age, pre-operative prostate specific antigen (PSA), post-operative Gleason score, capsular invasion, surgical margin status, tumor volume, and PSA recurrence. The influence of hypoxia, dihydrotestosterone, and the AR blocker Casodex was investigated in prostate cell lines VCaP and LNCaP in vitro. RESULTS: Expression of nuclear FOXP1 was significantly positively correlated with AR (P = 0.0001), hypoxia inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1alpha) (P = 0.01), HIF-2alpha (P = 0.0001), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (P = 0.007) expression. A positive significant relationship was also identified with the post-operative Gleason score (P = 0.03) but not with the other variables, including PSA recurrence (P > 0.05). There was no significant change in expression in FOXP1 protein levels under conditions of hypoxia (0.1%), dihydrotestosterone stimulation (10 or 100 nM), or androgen blockade with Casodex (1, 10, or 50 microM). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that there may be a hormonal and hypoxia independent regulatory mechanism coordinating the expression of HIFs, the AR, and FOXP1 in prostate tumors.

The number of regulatory T cells in prostate cancer is associated with the androgen receptor and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-2alpha but not HIF-1alpha.

BACKGROUND: Regulatory T cells (T(R)) mediate peripheral immunological tolerance and are implicated in tumor progression. Because prostate cancer is being investigated for treatment by immunotherapy, we have assessed tumor T(R) in prostate cancers. METHODS: T(R) cells were identified by FOXP3 in tissue microarrays (TMAs) from 146 radical prostatectomies and correlated with clinicopathological tumor parameters and prostatic specific antigen rise (PSA). RESULTS: Twenty of 146 tumors contained no T(R). The mean of the average for the remaining 146 patients was 7.24. There was a significant correlation between T(R) and androgen receptor (P=0.003) and with hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-2alpha (P=0.007) but not HIF-1alpha (P=0.25). There was no significant correlation between T(R) numbers and stage, capsular invasion, urethral margins, vascular invasion, Gleason score, pre-operative PSA, or time to PSA recurrence (all P>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: T(R) in prostate tumors shows significant heterogeneity and may be the result of hormonal and hypoxic signaling. Targeting these may reduce T(R) in tumors allowing more successful immune therapies.