ABSTRACT
Extant birds stand out among vertebrates in the diversity of parental care types they present, spanning absence of care to uniparental care by either sex, biparental or even cooperative care. Despite years of research, key questions remain regarding parental care evolution in birds. Firstly, the parental care type in the most recent ancestor of extant birds is a matter of controversy, with proposed ancestral states including no care, uniparental male or female care, and biparental care. Another unsolved question is the direction, order, and frequency of transitions between parental care types. We address these key questions using a database of 5,438 bird species (~50% of extant diversity) and modern phylogenetic comparative methods controlling simultaneously for model and phylogenetic uncertainty as well as potential confounding effects of state-dependent diversification. Our results indicate that the most likely ancestral state for extant birds is male-only care, with a posterior probability of 0.8. Transition rates across parental care types were generally low and heterogenous; loss of parental care virtually never occurs and transitions away from female only or cooperative care most often lead to biparental care. Given the low transition rates, future research should analyze the factors favoring the maintenance of care types.
