Exploring the metabolic and physiological roles of HQT in S. lycopersicum by gene editing.

The most abundant phenolic compound in Solanaceous plants is chlorogenic acid (CGA), which possesses protective properties such as antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. These properties are particularly relevant when plants are under adverse conditions, such as pathogen attack, excess light, or extreme temperatures that cause oxidative stress. Additionally, CGA has been shown to absorb UV-B light. In tomato and potato, CGA is mainly produced through the HQT pathway mediated by the enzyme hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA:quinate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase. However, the absence of natural or induced mutants of this gene has made it unclear whether other pathways contribute to CGA production and accumulation. To address this question, we used CRISPR technology to generate multiple knock-out mutant lines in the tomato HQT gene. The resulting slhqt plants did not accumulate CGA or other caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs) in various parts of the plant, indicating that CQA biosynthesis depends almost entirely on the HQT pathway in tomato and, likely, other Solanaceous crops. We also found that the lack of CGA in slhqt plants led to higher levels of hydroxycinnamoyl-glucose and flavonoids compared to wild-type plants. Gene expression analysis revealed that this metabolic reorganization was partly due to flux redirection, but also involved modulation of important transcription factor genes that regulate secondary metabolism and sense environmental conditions. Finally, we investigated the physiological role of CGA in tomato and found that it accumulates in the upper epidermis where it acts as a protector against UV-B irradiation.

Highly Efficient Gene Knockout in Medicago truncatula Genotype R108 Using CRISPR-Cas9 System and an Optimized Agrobacterium Transformation Method.

Medicago truncatula is the model plant species for studying symbioses with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and arbuscular mycorrhizae, where edited mutants are invaluable for elucidating the contributions of known genes in these processes. Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9)-based genome editing is a facile means of achieving loss of function, including where multiple gene knockouts are desired in a single generation. We describe how the user can customize our vector to target single or multiple genes, then how the vector is used to make M. truncatula transgenic plants containing target site mutations. Finally, obtaining transgene-free homozygous mutants is covered.

Efficient Targeted Mutagenesis in Brassica Crops Using CRISPR/Cas Systems.

CRISPR/Cas has been established for targeted mutagenesis in many plant species since 2013, including Brassica napus and Brassica oleracea. Since that time, improvements have been made in terms of efficiency and choice of CRISPR systems. This protocol encompasses improved Cas9 efficiency and an alternative Cas12a system, allowing more challenging and diverse editing outcomes to be achieved.

In-planta Gene Targeting in Barley Using Cas9 With and Without Geminiviral Replicons.

Advances in the use of RNA-guided Cas9-based genome editing in plants have been rapid over the last few years. A desirable application of genome editing is gene targeting (GT), as it allows a wide range of precise modifications; however, this remains inefficient especially in key crop species. Here, we describe successful, heritable gene targeting in barley at the target site of Cas9 using an in-planta strategy but fail to achieve the same using a wheat dwarf virus replicon to increase the copy number of the repair template. Without the replicon, we were able to delete 150 bp of the coding sequence of our target gene whilst simultaneously fusing in-frame mCherry in its place. Starting from 14 original transgenic plants, two plants appeared to have the required gene targeting event. From one of these T0 plants, three independent gene targeting events were identified, two of which were heritable. When the replicon was included, 39 T0 plants were produced and shown to have high copy numbers of the repair template. However, none of the 17 lines screened in T1 gave rise to significant or heritable gene targeting events despite screening twice the number of plants in T1 compared with the non-replicon strategy. Investigation indicated that high copy numbers of repair template created by the replicon approach cause false-positive PCR results which are indistinguishable at the sequence level to true GT events in junction PCR screens widely used in GT studies. In the successful non-replicon approach, heritable gene targeting events were obtained in T1, and subsequently, the T-DNA was found to be linked to the targeted locus. Thus, physical proximity of target and donor sites may be a factor in successful gene targeting.

CRISPR-Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing of MYB28 Genes Impair Glucoraphanin Accumulation of Brassica oleracea in the Field.

Discoveries in model plants grown under optimal conditions can provide important directions for crop improvement. However, it is important to verify whether results can be translated to crop plants grown in the field. In this study, we sought to study the role of MYB28 in the regulation of aliphatic glucosinolate (A-GSL) biosynthesis and associated sulfur metabolism in field-grown Brassica oleracea with the use of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 gene-editing technology. We describe the first myb28 knockout mutant in B. oleracea, and the first CRISPR field trial in the United Kingdom approved and regulated by the UK Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs after the reclassification of gene-edited crops as genetically modified organisms by the European Court of Justice on July 25, 2018. We report that knocking out myb28 results in downregulation of A-GSL biosynthesis genes and reduction in accumulation of the methionine-derived glucosinolate, glucoraphanin, in leaves and florets of field-grown myb28 mutant broccoli plants, whereas accumulation of sulfate, S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide, and indole glucosinolate in leaf and floret tissues remained unchanged. These results demonstrate the potential of gene-editing approaches to translate discoveries in fundamental biological processes for improved crop performance.

Creating Targeted Gene Knockouts in Brassica oleracea Using CRISPR/Cas9.

While public and political views on genetic modification (inserting "foreign" genes to elicit new traits) have resulted in limited exploitation of the technology in some parts of the world, the new era of genome editing (to edit existing genes to gain new traits/genetic variation) has the potential to change the biotech landscape. Genome editing offers a faster and simpler approach to gene knockout in both single and multiple genetic locations, within a single or small number of generations, in a way that has not been possible through alternative breeding methods. Here we describe an Agrobacterium-mediated delivery approach to deliver Cas9 and dual sgRNAs into 4-day-old cotyledonary petioles of Brassica oleracea. Mutations are detected in approximately 10% of primary transgenic plants and go on in subsequent T1 and T2 generations to segregate away from the T-DNA. This enables the recovery of non-transgenic, genome-edited plants carrying a variety of mutations at the target locus.

Creating Targeted Gene Knockouts in Barley Using CRISPR/Cas9.

Knockout mutants are an invaluable reverse genetics tool which have not been well developed in crop species compared to models like Arabidopsis. However, the emergence of CRISPR/Cas9 has changed this situation making the generation of such mutants accessible to many crops including barley. A single T-DNA construct can be transformed into barley immature embryos and stable transgenic lines regenerated through tissue culture which contain targeted mutations. Mutations are detected in T0 plants and go on in subsequent T1 and T2 generations to segregate from T-DNA, leaving lines which are non-transgenic and carrying a variety of mutations at the target locus. These mutations can be targeted to a particular gene of interest in order to bring about a loss of function creating a knockout mutant.

Induction of targeted, heritable mutations in barley and Brassica oleracea using RNA-guided Cas9 nuclease.

BACKGROUND: The RNA-guided Cas9 system represents a flexible approach for genome editing in plants. This method can create specific mutations that knock-out or alter target gene function. It provides a valuable tool for plant research and offers opportunities for crop improvement. RESULTS: We investigate the use and target specificity requirements of RNA-guided Cas9 genome editing in barley (Hordeum vulgare) and Brassica oleracea by targeting multicopy genes. In barley, we target two copies of HvPM19 and observe Cas9-induced mutations in the first generation of 23 % and 10 % of the lines, respectively. In B. oleracea, targeting of BolC.GA4.a leads to Cas9-induced mutations in 10 % of first generation plants screened. In addition, a phenotypic screen identifies T0 plants with the expected dwarf phenotype associated with knock-out of the target gene. In both barley and B. oleracea stable Cas9-induced mutations are transmitted to T2 plants independently of the T-DNA construct. We observe off-target activity in both species, despite the presence of at least one mismatch between the single guide RNA and the non-target gene sequences. In barley, a transgene-free plant has concurrent mutations in the target and non-target copies of HvPM19. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate the use of RNA-guided Cas9 to generate mutations in target genes of both barley and B. oleracea and show stable transmission of these mutations thus establishing the potential for rapid characterisation of gene function in these species. In addition, the off-target effects reported offer both potential difficulties and specific opportunities to target members of multigene families in crops.

Brassica rapa.

Within this chapter we outline an A. tumefaciens-mediated transformation method for B. rapa using 4-day-old cotyledonary explants and the genotype R-o-18. Transformation efficiencies are typically achieved in the region of 1% (based on 2 PCR-positive independent shoots from 200 inoculated explants). This system has been developed to work with gentamicin selection.

The same regulatory point mutation changed seed-dispersal structures in evolution and domestication.

It is unclear whether gene regulatory changes that drive evolution at the population and species levels [1-3] can be extrapolated to higher taxonomic levels. Here, we investigated the role of cis-regulatory changes in fruit evolution within the Brassicaceae family. REPLUMLESS (RPL, At5g02030) controls development of the replum, a structure with an important role in fruit opening and seed dispersal [6]. We show that reduced repla resembling the Arabidopsis rpl mutant correlated across the Brassicaceae with a point mutation in a conserved cis-element of RPL. When introduced in Arabidopsis, this nucleotide change specifically reduced RPL expression and function in the fruit. Conversely, Brassica RPL containing the Arabidopsis version of the cis-element was sufficient to convert the Brassica replum to an Arabidopsis-like morphology. A mutation in the same nucleotide position of the same cis-element in a RPL ortholog has been independently selected to reduce seed dispersal during domestication of rice, in spite of its very different fruit anatomy. Thus, single-nucleotide regulatory mutations at the same position explain developmental variation in seed-dispersal structures at the population and family levels and suggest that the same genetic toolkit is relevant to domestication and natural evolution in widely diverged species.

Gibberellins control fruit patterning in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The Arabidopsis basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins INDEHISCENT (IND) and ALCATRAZ (ALC) specify tissues required for fruit opening that have major roles in seed dispersal and plant domestication. Here, we show that synthesis of the phytohormone gibberellin is a direct and necessary target of IND, and that ALC interacts directly with DELLA repressors, which antagonize ALC function but are destabilized by gibberellin. Thus, the gibberellin/DELLA pathway has a key role in patterning the Arabidopsis fruit, and the interaction between DELLA and bHLH proteins, previously shown to connect gibberellin and light responses, is a versatile regulatory module also used in tissue patterning.

AHP2 is required for bivalent formation and for segregation of homologous chromosomes in Arabidopsis meiosis.

A new Arabidopsis meiotic mutant has been isolated. Homozygous ahp2-1 (Arabidopsis homologue pairing 2) plants were sterile because of failure of both male and female gametophyte development. Fluorescent in situ hybridisation showed that in ahp2-1 male meiocytes, chromosomes did not form bivalents during prophase I and instead seemed to associate indiscriminately. Chromosome fragmentation, chromatin bridges and unbalanced segregation were seen in anaphase I and anaphase II. The ahp2-1 mutation was caused by a T-DNA insertion in an Arabidopsis homologue of meu13+, which has been implicated in homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Our results suggest that meu13+ function is conserved in higher eukaryotes and support the idea that Arabidopsis, yeast and mouse share a pairing pathway that is not present in Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans.