Community health worker home visiting in deeply rural South Africa: 12-month outcomes.

Home visiting by community health workers (CHW) improves child outcomes in efficacy trials, there is however limited evidence of impact evaluating CHW programmes when operating outside of a research project. A CHW programme, previously demonstrated efficacious in a peri-urban township, was evaluated in a deeply rural context in a non-randomised comparative cohort study. Two non-contiguous, rural areas in the Eastern Cape of South Africa of about equal size and density were identified and 1469 mother-infant pairs were recruited over 33 months. In one area, CHWs conducted perinatal home visits (intervention group). Mothers in the comparison group received standard clinic care. Maternal and child outcomes were compared between the groups at one year. Mothers in the intervention group had significantly fewer depressive symptoms than mothers in the comparison group. Children of intervention mothers attained a higher proportion of their developmental milestones, compared to children in the comparison group. There were no other significant differences between mothers and children in the two groups. It is important to establish key parameters for implementing efficacious CHW programmes, especially as the numbers of CHWs are rapidly increased and are becoming critical components of task-shifting strategies of health departments in low and middle income countries (LMIC).

Community health workers impact on maternal and child health outcomes in rural South Africa - a non-randomized two-group comparison study.

BACKGROUND: Home visits by paraprofessional community health workers (CHWs) has been shown to improve maternal and child health outcomes in research studies in many countries. Yet, when these are scaled or replicated, efficacy disappears. An effective CHW home visiting program in peri-urban Cape Town found maternal and child health benefits over the 5 years point but this study examines if these benefits occur in deeply rural communities. METHODS: A non-randomized, two-group comparison study evaluated the impact of CHW in the rural Eastern Cape from August 2014 to May 2017, with 1310 mother-infant pairs recruited in pregnancy and 89% were reassessed at 6 months post-birth. RESULTS: Home visiting had limited, but important effects on child health, maternal wellbeing and health behaviors. Mothers reported fewer depressive symptoms, attended more antenatal visits and had better baby-feeding practices. Intervention mothers were significantly more likely to exclusively breastfeed for 6 months (OR: 1.8; 95% CI: 1.1, 2.9), had lower odds of mixing formula with baby porridge (regarded as detrimental) (OR: 0.4; 95% CI: 0.2, 0.8) and were less likely to consult traditional healers. Mothers living with HIV were more adherent with co-trimoxazole prophylaxis (p < 0.01). Intervention-group children were significantly less likely to be wasted (OR: 0.5; 95% CI 0.3-0.9) and had significantly fewer symptoms of common childhood illnesses in the preceding two weeks (OR: 0.8; 95% CI: 0.7,0.9). CONCLUSION: The impact of CHWs in a rural area was less pronounced than in peri-urban areas. CHWs are likely to need enhanced support and supervision in the challenging rural context.

Perinatal maternal depression in rural South Africa: Child outcomes over the first two years.

AIMS: To examine child outcomes over time among mothers with perinatally depressed mood in rural South Africa (SA). METHODS: A representative sample of consecutive births (470/493) in the OR Tambo District of the Eastern Cape of South Africa (SA) were recruited and were reassessed at five points over the course of the next two years: 85% were reassessed at 3 months, 92% at 6 months, 88% at 9 months, 91% at 12 months, and 88% at 2 years post-birth. Over time, the children of mothers with perinatally depressed mood (16%) were compared to children of mothers without depressed mood using multiple linear and logistic regressions. RESULTS: Mothers with perinatal depressed mood are significantly less likely to live with the child's father or their in-laws (23% vs 35%), have household incomes above 2000 ZAR (154 USD) (31% vs 51%), and significantly more likely to have experienced IPV prior (19% vs 9%) and during (32% vs 20%) pregnancy compared to mothers without depressed mood. There are no differences in age, education, primipara, HIV status (29% seropositive), or alcohol use. Growth and developmental delays and motor and speech milestones through 24 months post-birth are similar for mothers with and without perinatal depressed mood. CONCLUSIONS: Despite increased economic and partner difficulties associated with perinatal depressed mood, infant outcomes are similar in mothers with and without depressed mood in rural South Africa.

A longitudinal cohort study of rural adolescent vs adult South African mothers and their children from birth to 24 months.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent motherhood has been repeatedly linked to poor child outcomes in high income countries and urban areas in low- and middle-income countries. We examine the structural, personal, and caretaking challenges of adolescent mothers and their children in rural South Africa compared to adult mothers over the first 24 months post-birth. METHODS: A cohort of sequential births (n = 470/493) in the rural OR Tambo District was recruited and reassessed at 3, 6, 9, 12, and at 24 months post-birth, with a retention rate above 84% at all timepoints. Maternal and child outcomes were examined over time using multiple linear and logistic regressions. RESULTS: Adolescent mothers reflect 17% of births (n = 76/458). Adolescent mothers were more likely to have water in their households, but less likely to live with a partner and to be seropositive for HIV than adult mothers. Risks posed by mental health symptoms, alcohol, and partner violence were similar. Adolescents exclusively breastfed for shorter time and it took longer for them to secure a child grant compared to adult mothers. Although obtaining immunizations was similar, growth was significantly slower for infants of adolescent mothers compared to adult mothers over time. CONCLUSIONS: In rural South Africa, almost one in five pregnant women is an adolescent. Caretaking tasks influencing child growth, especially breastfeeding and securing the child grant appear as the greatest problems for adolescent compared to adult mothers.

To evaluate if increased supervision and support of South African Government health workers' home visits improves maternal and child outcomes: study protocol for a randomized control trial.

BACKGROUND: Concurrent epidemics of HIV, depression, alcohol abuse, and partner violence threaten maternal and child health (MCH) in South Africa. Although home visiting has been repeatedly demonstrated efficacious in research evaluations, efficacy disappears when programs are scaled broadly. In this cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT), we examine whether the benefits of ongoing accountability and supervision within an existing government funded and implemented community health workers (CHW) home visiting program ensure the effectiveness of home visiting. METHODS/DESIGN: In the deeply rural, Eastern Cape of South Africa, CHW will be hired by the government and will be initially trained by the Philani Programme to conduct home visits with all pregnant mothers and their children until the children are 2 years old. Eight clinics will be randomized to receive either (1) the Accountable Care Condition in which additional monitoring and accountability systems that Philani routinely uses are implemented (4 clinics, 16 CHW, 450 households); or (2) a Standard Care Condition of initial Philani training, but with supervision and monitoring being delivered by local government structures and systems (4 clinics, 21 CHW, 450 households). In the Accountable Care Condition areas, the CHW's mobile phone reports, which are time-location stamped, will be monitored and data-informed supervision will be provided, as well as monitoring growth, medical adherence, mental health, and alcohol use outcomes. Interviewers will independently assess outcomes at pregnancy at 3, 6, 15, and 24 months post-birth. The primary outcome will be a composite score of documenting maternal HIV/TB testing, linkage to care, treatment adherence and retention, as well as child physical growth, cognitive functioning, and child behavior and developmental milestones. DISCUSSION: The proposed cluster RCT will evaluate whether routinely implementing supervision and accountability procedures and monitoring CHWs' over time will improve MCH outcomes over the first 2 years of life. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov registration #NCT02957799 , registered on October 26, 2016.

Thirty-Six-Month Outcomes of a Generalist Paraprofessional Perinatal Home Visiting Intervention in South Africa on Maternal Health and Child Health and Development.

Almost all pregnant women (98 %) in 24 Cape Town neighborhoods were randomized by neighborhood to (1) the standard care (SC) condition (n = 12 neighborhoods; n = 594 pregnant women) or (2) the Philani Intervention Program (PIP) in which home visits by Community Health Workers (CHW) were conducted (n = 12 neighborhoods; n = 644 pregnant women). At 36 months post-birth (84.6 % follow-up), PIP mothers were significantly less depressed compared to the SC mothers. Children in PIP were significantly less likely to be stunted (24.3 vs 18.1 %, p = 0.013), to have better vocabularies, and were less likely to be hospitalized than children in the SC condition. These data suggest home visits may need to continue for several years post-birth. Sustainable, scalable perinatal intervention models are needed in LMIC.

Community health workers can improve child growth of antenatally-depressed, South African mothers: a cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Maternal antenatal depression has long-term consequences for children's health. We examined if home visits by community health workers (CHW) can improve growth outcomes for children of mothers who are antenatally depressed. METHODS: A cluster randomized controlled trial of all pregnant, neighbourhood women in Cape Town, South Africa. Almost all pregnant women (98 %, N = 1238) were recruited and assessed during pregnancy, two weeks post-birth (92 %) and 6 months post-birth (88 %). Pregnant women were randomized to either: 1) Standard Care (SC), which provided routine antenatal care; or 2) an intervention, The Philani Intervention Program (PIP), which included SC and home visits by CHW trained as generalists (M = 11 visits). Child standardized weight, length, and weight by length over 6 months based on maternal antenatal depression and intervention condition. RESULTS: Depressed mood was similar across the PIP and SC conditions both antenatally (16.5 % rate) and at 6 months (16.7 %). The infants of depressed pregnant women in the PIP group were similar in height (height-for-age Z scores) to the children of non-depressed mothers in both the PIP and the SC conditions, but significantly taller at 6 months of age than the infants of pregnant depressed mothers in the SC condition. The intervention did not moderate children's growth. Depressed SC mothers tended to have infants less than two standard deviations in height on the World Health Organization's norms at two weeks post-birth compared to infants of depressed PIP mothers and non-depressed mothers in both conditions. CONCLUSIONS: A generalist, CHW-delivered home visiting program improved infant growth, even when mothers' depression was not reduced. Focusing on maternal caretaking of infants, even when mothers are depressed, is critical in future interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov registration # NCT00996528 . October 15, 2009.

Re-engagement in HIV care among mothers living with HIV in South Africa over 36 months post-birth.

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission services are integrated into antenatal care in South Africa, but post-birth care is at HIV clinics. Almost all Mothers Living with HIV (MLH) in 24 township neighborhoods (N = 324) reported engagement in HIV care from pregnancy to 36 months post-birth. Less than half re-engaged in HIV care at 6 months (45%), 52.5% at 18 months, and 62.5% at 36 months. Most were prescribed antiretroviral drugs if re-engaged in care, yet only about half (53%) are on antiretroviral drugs at 36 months post-birth. Implementation of Option B+ will require substantially better engagement in care.

The impact of paraprofessional home visitors on infants' growth and health at 18 months.

Paraprofessional home visitors trained to improve multiple outcomes (HIV, alcohol, infant health, and malnutrition) have been shown to benefit mothers and children over 18 months in a cluster randomised controlled trial (RCT). These longitudinal analyses examine the mechanisms which influence child outcomes at 18 months post-birth in Cape Town, South Africa. The results were evaluated using structural equation modelling, specifically examining the mediating effects of prior maternal behaviours and a home visiting intervention post-birth. Twelve matched pairs of neighbourhoods were randomised within pairs to: 1) the control condition, receiving comprehensive healthcare at community primary health care clinics (n=12 neighbourhoods; n=594 pregnant women), or 2) the Philani Intervention Program, which provided home visits by trained, paraprofessional community health workers, here called Mentor Mothers, in addition to clinic care (n=12 neighbourhoods; n=644 pregnant women). Recruitment of all pregnant neighbourhood women was high (98%) with 88% reassessed at six months and 84% at 18 months. Infants' growth and diarrhoea episodes were examined at 18 months in response to the intervention condition, breastfeeding, alcohol use, social support, and low birth weight, controlling for HIV status and previous history of risk. We found that randomisation to the intervention was associated with a significantly lower number of recent diarrhoea episodes and increased rates and duration of breastfeeding. Across both the intervention and control conditions, mothers who used alcohol during pregnancy and had low birth weight infants were significantly less likely to have infants with normal growth patterns, whereas social support was associated with better growth. HIV-infection was significantly associated with poor growth and less breastfeeding. Women with more risk factors had significantly smaller social support networks. The relationships among initial and sustained maternal risk behaviours and the buffering impact of home visits and social support are demonstrated in these analyses.

A cluster randomised controlled effectiveness trial evaluating perinatal home visiting among South African mothers/infants.

BACKGROUND: Interventions are needed to reduce poor perinatal health. We trained community health workers (CHWs) as home visitors to address maternal/infant risks. METHODS: In a cluster randomised controlled trial in Cape Town townships, neighbourhoods were randomised within matched pairs to 1) the control, healthcare at clinics (n = 12 neighbourhoods; n = 594 women), or 2) a home visiting intervention by CBW trained in cognitive-behavioural strategies to address health risks (by the Philani Maternal, Child Health and Nutrition Programme), in addition to clinic care (n = 12 neighbourhoods; n = 644 women). Participants were assessed during pregnancy (2% refusal) and 92% were reassessed at two weeks post-birth, 88% at six months and 84% at 18 months later. We analysed 32 measures of maternal/infant well-being over the 18 month follow-up period using longitudinal random effects regressions. A binomial test for correlated outcomes evaluated overall effectiveness over time. The 18 month post-birth assessment outcomes also were examined alone and as a function of the number of home visits received. RESULTS: Benefits were found on 7 of 32 measures of outcomes, resulting in significant overall benefits for the intervention compared to the control when using the binomial test (p = 0.008); nevertheless, no effects were observed when only the 18 month outcomes were analyzed. Benefits on individual outcomes were related to the number of home visits received. Among women living with HIV, intervention mothers were more likely to implement the PMTCT regimens, use condoms during all sexual episodes (OR = 1.25; p = 0.014), have infants with healthy weight-for-age measurements (OR = 1.42; p = 0.045), height-for-age measurements (OR = 1.13, p<0.001), breastfeed exclusively for six months (OR = 3.59; p<0.001), and breastfeed longer (OR = 3.08; p<0.001). Number of visits was positively associated with infant birth weight ≥2500 grams (OR = 1.07; p = 0.012), healthy head-circumference-for-age measurements at 6 months (OR = 1.09, p = 0.017), and improved cognitive development at 18 months (OR = 1.02, p = 0.048). CONCLUSIONS: Home visits to neighbourhood mothers by CHWs may be a feasible strategy for enhancing maternal/child outcomes. However, visits likely must extend over several years for persistent benefits. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00996528.

Community-based prenatal screening for postpartum depression in a South African township.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the feasibility of using community health workers to administer short or ultra-short screening instruments during routine community-based prenatal outreach for detecting probable depression at 12 weeks postpartum. METHODS: During pregnancy and at 12 weeks postpartum, the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS-10) was administered to 249 Xhosa-speaking black African women living in Khayelitsha, South Africa. We compared the operating characteristics of the prenatal EPDS-10, as well as 4 short and ultra-short subscales, with the criterion standard of probable postpartum depression. RESULTS: Seventy-nine (31.7%) women were assessed as having probable postpartum depression. A prenatal EPDS-10 score of 13 or higher had 0.67 sensitivity and 0.67 specificity for detecting probable postpartum depression. Briefer subscales performed similarly. CONCLUSION: Community health workers successfully conducted community-based screening for depression in a resource-limited setting using short or ultra-short screening instruments. However, overall feasibility was limited because prenatal screening failed to accurately predict probable depression during the postpartum period.

Antenatal depression case finding by community health workers in South Africa: feasibility of a mobile phone application.

Randomized controlled trials conducted in resource-limited settings have shown that once women with depressed mood are evaluated by specialists and referred for treatment, lay health workers can be trained to effectively administer psychological treatments. We sought to determine the extent to which community health workers could also be trained to conduct case finding using short and ultrashort screening instruments programmed into mobile phones. Pregnant, Xhosa-speaking women were recruited independently in two cross-sectional studies (N = 1,144 and N = 361) conducted in Khayelitsha, South Africa and assessed for antenatal depression. In the smaller study, community health workers with no training in human subject research were trained to administer the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) during the routine course of their community-based outreach. We compared the operating characteristics of four short and ultrashort versions of the EPDS with the criterion standard of probable depression, defined as an EPDS-10 ≥ 13. The prevalence of probable depression (475/1144 [42 %] and 165/361 [46 %]) was consistent across both samples. The 2-item subscale demonstrated poor internal consistency (Cronbach's α ranged from 0.55 to 0.58). All four subscales demonstrated excellent discrimination, with area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) values ranging from 0.91 to 0.99. Maximal discrimination was observed for the 7-item depressive symptoms subscale: at the conventional screening threshold of ≥10, it had 0.97 sensitivity and 0.76 specificity for detecting probable antenatal depression. The comparability of the findings across the two studies suggests that it is feasible to use community health workers to conduct case finding for antenatal depression.

Multiple risk factors during pregnancy in South Africa: the need for a horizontal approach to perinatal care.

South African children's long-term health and well-being is jeopardized during their mothers' pregnancies by the intersecting epidemics of HIV, alcohol use, low birth weight (LBW; <2,500 g) related to poor nutrition, and depressed mood. This research examines these overlapping risk factors among 1,145 pregnant Xhosa women living in 24 township neighborhoods in Cape Town, South Africa. Results revealed that 66 % of pregnant women experienced at least one risk factor. In descending order of prevalence, 37 % reported depressed mood, 29 % were HIV+, 25 % used alcohol prior to knowing that they were pregnant, and 15 % had a previous childbirth with a LBW infant. Approximately 27 % of women had more than one risk factor: depressed mood was significantly associated with alcohol use and LBW, with a trend to significance with HIV+. In addition, alcohol use was significantly related to HIV+. These results suggest the importance of intervening across multiple risks to maternal and child health, and particularly with depression and alcohol use, to positively impact multiple maternal and infant outcomes.

Food insecurity and its association with co-occurring postnatal depression, hazardous drinking, and suicidality among women in peri-urban South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Although the public health impacts of food insecurity and depression on both maternal and child health are extensive, no studies have investigated the associations between food insecurity and postnatal depression or suicidality. METHODS: We interviewed 249 women three months after they had given birth and assessed food insecurity, postnatal depression symptom severity, suicide risk, and hazardous drinking. Multivariable Poisson regression models with robust standard errors were used to estimate the impact of food insecurity on psychosocial outcomes. RESULTS: Food insecurity, probable depression, and hazardous drinking were highly prevalent and co-occurring. More than half of the women (149 [59.8%]) were severely food insecure, 79 (31.7%) women met screening criteria for probable depression, and 39 (15.7%) women met screening criteria for hazardous drinking. Nineteen (7.6%) women had significant suicidality, of whom 7 (2.8%) were classified as high risk. Each additional point on the food insecurity scale was associated with increased risks of probable depression (adjusted risk ratio [ARR], 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02-1.07), hazardous drinking (ARR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.00-1.09), and suicidality (ARR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.02-1.23). Evaluated at the means of the covariates, these estimated associations were large in magnitude. LIMITATIONS: The study is limited by lack of data on formal DSM-IV diagnoses of major depressive disorder, potential sample selection bias, and inability to assess the causal impact of food insecurity. CONCLUSION: Food insecurity is strongly associated with postnatal depression, hazardous drinking, and suicidality. Programmes promoting food security for new may enhance overall psychological well-being in addition to improving nutritional status.

Outcomes of home visits for pregnant mothers and their infants: a cluster randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of home visits by community health workers (CHWs) on maternal and infant well being from pregnancy through the first 6 months of life for women living with HIV (WLH) and all neighborhood mothers. DESIGN AND METHODS: In a cluster randomized controlled trial in Cape Town townships, neighborhoods were randomized within matched pairs to either standard care, comprehensive healthcare at clinics (n=12 neighborhoods; n=169 WLH; n=594 total mothers); or Philani Intervention Program, home visits by CHWs in addition to standard care (PIP; n=12 neighborhoods; n=185 WLH; n=644 total mothers). Participants were assessed during pregnancy (2% refusal) and reassessed at 1 week (92%) and 6 months (88%) postbirth. We analyzed PIP's effect on 28 measures of maternal and infant well being among WLH and among all mothers using random effects regression models. For each group, PIP's overall effectiveness was evaluated using a binomial test for correlated outcomes. RESULTS: Significant overall benefits were found in PIP compared to standard care among WLH and among all participants. Secondarily, compared to standard care, PIP WLH were more likely to complete tasks to prevent vertical transmission, use one feeding method for 6 months, avoid birth-related medical complications, and have infants with healthy height-for-age measurements. Among all mothers, compared to standard care, PIP mothers were more likely to use condoms consistently, breastfeed exclusively for 6 months, and have infants with healthy height-for-age measurements. CONCLUSION: PIP is a model for countries facing significant reductions in HIV funding whose families face multiple health risks.

Philani Plus (+): a Mentor Mother community health worker home visiting program to improve maternal and infants' outcomes.

Pregnant mothers in South African townships face multiple health risks for themselves and their babies. Existing clinic-based services face barriers to access, utilization, and human resource capacities. Home visiting by community health workers (CHW) can mitigate such barriers. The Philani Plus (+) Intervention Program builds upon the original Philani CHW home-visiting intervention program for maternal and child nutrition by integrating content and activities to address HIV, alcohol, and mental health. Pregnant Mothers at Risk (MAR) for HIV, alcohol, and/or nutrition problems in 24 neighborhoods in townships in Cape Town, South Africa (n = 1,239) were randomly assigned by neighborhood to an intervention (Philani Plus (+), N = 12 neighborhoods; n = 645 MAR) or a standard-care control condition of neighborhood clinic-based services (N = 12 neighborhoods; n = 594 MAR). Positive peer deviant "Mentor Mother" CHWs are recruited from the township neighborhoods and trained to deliver four antenatal and four postnatal home visits that address HIV, alcohol, nutrition, depression, health care regimens for the family, caretaking and bonding, and securing government-provided child grants. The MAR and their babies are being monitored during pregnancy, 1 week post-birth, and 6 and 18 months later. Among the 1,239 MAR recruited: 26% were HIV-positive; 27% used alcohol during pregnancy; 17% previously had low-birthweight babies; 23% had at least one chronic condition (10% hypertension, 5% asthma, 2% diabetes); 93% had recent sexual partners with 10% known to be HIV+; and 17% had clinically significant prenatal depression and 42% had borderline depression. This paper presents the intervention protocol and baseline sample characteristics for the "Philani Plus (+)" CHW home-visiting intervention trial.

A randomized controlled trial of home visits by neighborhood mentor mothers to improve children's nutrition in South Africa.

Malnourished children and babies with birth weights under 2500 g are at high risk for negative outcomes over their lifespans. Philani, a paraprofessional home visiting program, was developed to improve nutritional outcomes for young children in South Africa. One "mentor mother" was recruited from each of 37 neighborhoods in Cape Town, South Africa. Mentor mothers were trained to conduct home visits to weigh children under six years old and to support mothers to problem-solve life challenges, especially around nutrition. Households with underweight children were assigned randomly on a 2:1 ratio to the Philani program (n = 500) or to a standard care condition (n = 179); selection effects occurred and children in the intervention households weighed less at recruitment. Children were evaluated over a one-year period (n = 679 at recruitment and n = 638 with at least one follow-up; 94%). Longitudinal random effects models indicated that, over 12 months, the children in the intervention condition gained significantly more weight than children in the control condition. Mentor mothers who are positive peer deviants may be a viable strategy that is efficacious and can build community, and the use of mentor mothers for other problems in South Africa is discussed.

Home visits by neighborhood Mentor Mothers provide timely recovery from childhood malnutrition in South Africa: results from a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Child and infant malnourishment is a significant and growing problem in the developing world. Malnourished children are at high risk for negative health outcomes over their lifespans. Philani, a paraprofessional home visiting program, was developed to improve childhood nourishment. The objective of this study is to evaluate whether the Philani program can rehabilitate malnourished children in a timely manner. METHODS: Mentor Mothers were trained to conduct home visits. Mentor Mothers went from house to house in assigned neighborhoods, weighed children age 5 and younger, and recruited mother-child dyads where there was an underweight child. Participating dyads were assigned in a 2:1 random sequence to the Philani intervention condition (n = 536) or a control condition (n = 252). Mentor Mothers visited dyads in the intervention condition for one year, supporting mothers' problem-solving around nutrition. All children were weighed by Mentor Mothers at baseline and three, six, nine and twelve month follow-ups. RESULTS: By three months, children in the intervention condition were five times more likely to rehabilitate (reach a healthy weight for their ages) than children in the control condition. Throughout the course of the study, 43% (n = 233 of 536) of children in the intervention condition were rehabilitated while 31% (n = 78 of 252) of children in the control condition were rehabilitated. CONCLUSIONS: Paraprofessional Mentor Mothers are an effective strategy for delivering home visiting programs by providing the knowledge and support necessary to change the behavior of families at risk.