Development and characterization of rat duodenal organoids for ADME and toxicology applications.

Many in vitro gastrointestinal models have been developed with the hope that they will continue to improve in their similarity to the organs from which they were isolated. Intestinal organoids isolated from various species are now being used to investigate physiology and pathophysiology. In this study, intestinal stem cells were isolated from adult rat duodenum and culture conditions were optimized to promote the growth, differentiation and development of 3D organoids. We optimized and characterized rat duodenal organoids with light and electron microscopy, immunofluorescence and notably, global mRNA expression. The metabolic capacity of these cultures was investigated using probe substrates for multiple phase I and phase II drug metabolizing enzymes and found to be in line with previous results from intestinal primary cultures and a significant improvement over immortalized cell lines. Over the course of differentiation, the gene expression profiles of the rat duodenal organoids were consistent with expected trends in differentiation to various cell lineages reflecting the duodenum in vivo. Further, incubations of these cultures with naproxen and celecoxib resulted in cytotoxicity consistent with the direct cytotoxic effects of these drugs to duodenum in vivo. Based on these characteristics, the rat duodenal organoids described herein will provide a novel platform for investigating a wide variety of mechanistic questions.

Identification and Preclinical Pharmacology of ((1 R,3 S)-1-Amino-3-(( S)-6-(2-methoxyphenethyl)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)cyclopentyl)methanol (BMS-986166): A Differentiated Sphingosine-1-phosphate Receptor 1 (S1P1) Modulator Advanced into Clinical Trials.

Recently, our research group reported the identification of BMS-986104 (2) as a differentiated S1P1 receptor modulator. In comparison to fingolimod (1), a full agonist of S1P1 currently marketed for the treatment of relapse remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), 2 offers several potential advantages having demonstrated improved safety multiples in preclinical evaluations against undesired pulmonary and cardiovascular effects. In clinical trials, 2 was found to exhibit a pharmacokinetic half-life ( T1/2) longer than that of 1, as well as a reduced formation of the phosphate metabolite that is required for activity against S1P1. Herein, we describe our efforts to discover highly potent, partial agonists of S1P1 with a shorter T1/2 and increased in vivo phosphate metabolite formation. These efforts culminated in the discovery of BMS-986166 (14a), which was advanced to human clinical evaluation. The pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) relationship as well as pulmonary and cardiovascular safety assessments are discussed. Furthermore, efficacy of 14a in multiple preclinical models of autoimmune diseases are presented.

Evaluation and validation of multiple cell lines and primary mouse macrophages to predict phospholipidosis potential.

Phospholipidosis (PLD) in preclinical species can lead to regulatory delays thereby creating incentives to screen for PLD during drug discovery. The objective of this work was to compare, optimize, and validate in vitro PLD assays in primary mouse macrophages and hepatocyte- (HepG2, HuH7) or macrophage-derived cells lines (I.13.35, RAW264.7) and to evaluate whether primary cells were better at predicting PLD. Assay precision, determined by a measure of signal to noise window (Z'), within assay variability, and day-to-day variability, using amiodarone, was generally acceptable for all cell types; however, precision limits for HepG2 and HuH7 were slightly below assay acceptance criteria. Up to 66 known PLD inducers and non-inducers were subsequently tested to validate the assays. The concordance for predicting PLD in primary macrophages, I-13.35, RAW264.7, HuH7, and HepG2 cells was 91%, 74%, 73%, 62%, and 62% respectively using a decision limit of EC50≤125 µM as a positive finding. Increasing the number of negative controls tested in RAW264.7 cells and changing the decision limit to ≥4-fold increase in PLD, improved the specificity and overall concordance to 88%. RAW264.7 cells were selected as the primary screen for predicting PLD, and together with the primary macrophages, were integrated into an overall testing paradigm proposed for use in PLD risk identification.

Characterization of organic anion-transporting polypeptide (Oatp) 1a1 and 1a4 null mice reveals altered transport function and urinary metabolomic profiles.

Organic anion-transporting polypeptides (Oatp) 1a1 and 1a4 were deleted by homologous recombination, and mice were characterized for Oatp expression in liver and kidney, transport in isolated hepatocytes, in vivo disposition of substrates, and urinary metabolomic profiles. Oatp1a1 and Oatp1a4 proteins were undetected in liver, and both lines were viable and fertile. Hepatic constitutive messenger RNAs (mRNAs) for Oatp1a4, 1b2, or 2b1 were unchanged in Oatp1a1⁻/⁻ mice, whereas renal Oatp1a4 mRNA decreased approximately 50% (both sexes). In Oatp1a4⁻/⁻ mice, no changes in constitutive mRNAs for other Oatps were observed. Uptake of estradiol-17ß-D-glucuronide and estrone-3-sulfate in primary hepatocytes decreased 95 and 75%, respectively, in Oatp1a1⁻/⁻ mice and by 60 and 30%, respectively, in Oatp1a4⁻/⁻ mice. Taurocholate uptake decreased by 20 and 50% in Oatp1a1⁻/⁻ and Oatp1a4⁻/⁻ mice, respectively, whereas digoxin was unaffected. Plasma area under the curve (AUC) for estradiol-17ß-D-glucuronide increased 35 and 55% in male and female Oatp1a1⁻/⁻ mice, respectively, with a concurrent 50% reduction in liver-to-plasma ratios. In contrast, plasma AUC or tissue concentrations of estradiol-17ß-D-glucuronide were unchanged in Oatp1a4⁻/⁻ mice. Plasma AUCs for dibromosulfophthalein increased nearly threefold in male Oatp1a1⁻/⁻ and Oatp1a4⁻/⁻ mice, increased by 40% in female Oatp1a4⁻/⁻ mice, and were unchanged in female Oatp1a1⁻/⁻ mice. In both lines, no changes in serum ALT, bilirubin, and cholesterol were noted. NMR analyses showed no generalized increase in urinary excretion of organic anions. However, urinary excretion of taurine decreased by 30-40% and was accompanied by increased excretion of isethionic acid, a taurine metabolite generated by intestinal bacteria, suggesting some perturbations in intestinal bacteria distribution.

Modulation of ascorbic acid metabolism by cytochrome P450 induction revealed by metabonomics and transcriptional profiling.

In the present study, NMR-based urinary metabonomic profiles resulting from dosing with widely recognized microsomal enzyme inducers were evaluated in male rats. Wistar or Sprague-Dawley rats were dosed daily by oral gavage with phenobarbital (PB; 100 mg/kg), diallyl sulfide (DAS; 500 mg/kg), the investigational compound DMP-904 (150 mg/kg), or beta-naphthoflavone (BNF; 100 mg/kg) for 4 days, and urine was collected daily for analysis. Compounds known to increase cytochrome P450 2B enzymes, including PB, DAS and DMP-904, increased the urinary excretion of gulonic and ascorbic acid in a time-dependent manner, reaching a maximum following 3-4 days of dosing. In contrast, BNF, an agent that induces primarily Cyp1A enzymes, did not increase gulonic or ascorbic acid excretion, despite inducing Cyp1A1 more than 200-fold. Given the metabonomic results, hepatic transcriptional changes in the regulation of ascorbic acid biosynthesis were determined by RT-PCR. All Cyp2B inducers increased hepatic mRNA levels of aldo-keto reductase 1A1, an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of gulonic acid from glucuronate with concurrent decreased expression of both regucalcin (Rgn), the enzyme responsible for conversion of gulonic acid to gulono-1, 4-lactone and gulonolactone oxidase (Gulo), the rate-limiting enzyme in ascorbate biosynthesis. These effects would be expected to increase levels of gulonic acid. In addition, Cyp2B inducers also increased hepatic expression of enzymes regulating ascorbic acid reutilization including glutaredoxin reductase (Glrx2) and thioredoxin reductase (Txnrd1). In contrast, BNF did not effect hepatic expression of any enzyme regulating gulonic or ascorbic acid biosynthesis. Thus, some microsomal enzyme inducers alter transcriptional regulation of ascorbic acid biosynthesis, and these changes are detected by noninvasive metabonomic profiling. However, not all microsomal enzyme inducers appear to alter ascorbic acid metabolism. Finally, the work illustrates how metabonomic results can direct additional studies to determine the biochemical mechanisms underlying changes in urinary metabolite excretion.

Hepatobiliary disposition of thyroid hormone in Mrp2-deficient TR- rats: reduced biliary excretion of thyroxine glucuronide does not prevent xenobiotic-induced hypothyroidism.

The hepatobiliary disposition of thyroxine (T4) was evaluated in Groningen Yellow transport deficient (TR(-)) rats lacking functional multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (Mrp2; Abcc2). Male Wistar and TR(-) rats were dosed orally (4 days) with phenobarbital (PB; 100 mg/kg) or DMP 904 (200 mg/kg), after which T4 homeostasis and hepatic cytochromes P450, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, xenobiotic transporters, and T4 glucuronidation were determined. Serum concentrations of T4 were approximately 50% higher in control TR(-) rats than Wistars. PB and DMP 904 increased hepatic levels of P450s and T4-glucuronidation (T4-G), and these changes were associated with decreased serum T4 levels in both strains. In Wistar but not TR(-) rats, DMP 904 increased thyroid stimulating hormone levels twofold. Hepatobiliary clearance of T4 was determined after intravenous infusion of [(125)I]T4 to rats dosed with PB and DMP 904 (4 days). PB and DMP 904 increased plasma clearance and hepatic uptake of [(125)I]T4 equivalents in Wistar but not TR(-) rats. Total biliary clearance (Cl(bile)) was approximately 0.85 and 0.2 ml/h in Wistar and TR(-) rats, respectively, with virtually no T4-G excreted in bile in TR(-) rats. Biliary clearance of unconjugated T4 was also lower in control TR(-) rats than in Wistars, although DMP 904 increased its biliary clearance in both strains. These results suggest that Mrp2 is likely to be responsible for biliary excretion of T4-G and contributes in part to excretion of T4. Decreased biliary clearance of T4 and metabolites in TR(-) rats mitigated but did not prevent drug-induced changes in serum T4, suggesting that other factors contribute to changes in T4 homeostasis in these rats.

Reductive isoxazole ring opening of the anticoagulant razaxaban is the major metabolic clearance pathway in rats and dogs.

Razaxaban is a selective, potent, and orally bioavailable inhibitor of coagulation factor Xa. The molecule contains a 1,2-benzisoxazole structure. After oral administration of [(14)C]razaxaban to intact and bile duct-cannulated rats (300 mg/kg) and dogs (20 mg/kg), metabolism followed by biliary excretion was the major elimination pathway in both species, accounting for 34 to 44% of the dose, whereas urinary excretion accounted for 3 to 13% of the dose. Chromatographic separation of radioactivity in urine, bile, and feces of rats and dogs showed that razaxaban was extensively metabolized in both species. Metabolites were identified on the basis of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry and comparison with synthetic standards. Among the 12 metabolites identified, formation of an isoxazole-ring opened benzamidine metabolite (M1) represented a major metabolic pathway of razaxaban in rats and dogs. However, razaxaban was the major circulating drug-related component (>70%) in both species, and M1, M4, and M7 were minor circulating components. In addition to the in vivo observations, M1 was formed as the primary metabolite in rat and dog hepatocytes and in the rat liver cytosolic fraction. The formation of M1 in the rat liver fraction required the presence of NADH. Theses results suggest that isoxazole ring reduction, forming a stable benzamidine metabolite (M1), represents the primary metabolic pathway of razaxaban in vivo and in vitro. The reduction reaction was catalyzed by NADH-dependent reductase(s) in the liver and possibly by intestinal microflora on the basis of the recovery of M1 in feces of bile duct-cannulated rats.