A PCR test to identify bacillus subtilis and closely related species and its application to the monitoring of wastewater biotreatment.

A PCR test based on the 16S rRNA gene was set up that could identify any of the five species of the 'Bacillus subtilis group' (B. subtilis, B. pumilus, B. atrophaeus, B. lichenijormis and B. amyloliquefaciens). The test was directly applicable to single colonies and showed excellent specificity. In the mixed population context of wastewater analysis, direct detection of the target Bacillus species by PCR on either crude or purified DNA extracts had poor sensitivity. When assayed on cell suspensions derived from enriched wastewater samples, sensitivity was increased. Using a simple calibration method, it was possible to estimate the proportion of the target organisms. This method was found suitable for easy monitoring of a wastewater bioaugmentation experiment carried out with a mixture of sporulated Bacillus strains.

Unexpected influence of a C-terminal-fused His-tag on the processing of an enzyme and on the kinetic and folding parameters.

The addition of a poly-His C-terminal extension, designed to facilitate the purification of the protein, to the beta-lactamase of a thermophilic Bacillus licheniformis strain modified the site of action of the signal peptidase. This resulted in the secretion of a protein with a different N-terminus, showing that this type of protein engineering might not always be as 'neutral' as generally assumed.

Site-directed mutagenesis of glutamate 166 in two beta-lactamases. Kinetic and molecular modeling studies.

The catalytic pathway of class A beta-lactamases involves an acyl-enzyme intermediate where the substrate is ester-linked to the Ser-70 residue. Glu-166 and Lys-73 have been proposed as candidates for the role of general base in the activation of the serine OH group. The replacement of Glu-166 by an asparagine in the TEM-1 and by a histidine in the Streptomyces albus G beta-lactamases yielded enzymes forming stable acyl-enzymes with beta-lactam antibiotics. Although acylation of the modified proteins by benzylpenicillin remained relatively fast, it was significantly impaired when compared to that observed with the wild-type enzyme. Moreover, the E166N substitution resulted in a spectacular modification of the substrate profile much larger than that described for other mutations of Omega-loop residues. Molecular modeling studies indicate that the displacement of the catalytic water molecule can be related to this observation. These results confirm the crucial roles of Glu-166 and of the "catalytic" water molecule in both the acylation and the deacylation processes.

Kinetic and thermodynamic consequences of the removal of the Cys-77-Cys-123 disulphide bond for the folding of TEM-1 beta-lactamase.

Class A beta-lactamases of the TEM family contain a single disulphide bond which connects cysteine residues 77 and 123. To clarify the possible role of the disulphide bond in the stability and folding kinetics of the TEM-1 beta-lactamase, this bond was removed by introducing a Cys-77-->Ser mutation, and the enzymically active mutant protein was studied by reversible guanidine hydrochloride-induced denaturation. The unfolding and refolding rates were monitored using tryptophan fluorescence. At low guanidine hydrochloride concentrations, the refolding of the wild-type and mutant enzymes followed biphasic time courses. The characteristics of the two phases were not significantly affected by the mutation. Double-jump experiments, in which the protein was unfolded in a high concentration of guanidine hydrochloride for a short time period and then refolded by diluting out the denaturant, indicated that, for both the wild-type and mutant enzymes, the two refolding phases could be ascribed to proline isomerization reactions. Equilibrium unfolding experiments monitored by fluorescence spectroscopy and far-UV CD indicated a three-state mechanism (N<-->H<--U). Both the folded mutant protein (N) and, to a lesser extent the thermodynamically stable intermediate, H. were destabilized relative to the fully unfolded state, U. Removal of the disulphide bond resulted in a decrease of 14.2 kJ/mol (3.4 kcal/mol) in the global free energy of stabilization. Similarly, the mutation also induced a drastic increase in the rate of thermal inactivation.

The roles of residues Tyr150, Glu272, and His314 in class C beta-lactamases.

Serine beta-lactamases contribute widely to the beta-lactam resistance phenomena. Unfortunately, the intimate details of their catalytic mechanism remain elusive and subject to some controversy even though many "natural" and "artificial" mutants of these different enzymes have been isolated. This paper is essentially focused on class C beta-lactamases, which contain a Tyr (Tyr150) as the first residue of the second conserved element, in contrast to their class A counterparts, in which a Ser is found in the corresponding position. We have modified this Tyr residue by site-directed mutagenesis. On the basis of the three-dimensional structure of the Enterobacter cloacae P99 enzyme, it seemed that residues Glu272 and His314 might also be important. They were similarly substituted. The modified enzymes were isolated and their catalytic properties determined. Our results indicated that His314 was not required for catalysis and that Glu272 did not play an important role in acylation but was involved to a small extent in the deacylation process. Conversely, Tyr150 was confirmed to be central for catalysis, at least with the best substrates. On the basis of a comparison of data obtained for several class C enzyme mutants and in agreement with recent structural data, we propose that the phenolate anion of Tyr150, in conjunction with the alkyl ammonium of Lys315, acts as the general base responsible for the activation of the active-site Ser64 during the acylation step and for the subsequent activation of a water molecule in the deacylation process. The evolution of the important superfamily of penicillin-recognizing enzymes is further discussed in the light of this proposed mechanism.

Phosphonamidate analogues of dipeptides with carboxypeptidase A and beta-lactamase-inhibitory activity: elucidation of the mechanism of beta-lactamase inhibition by electrospray mass spectrometry.

A series of phosphonamidate compounds with different P1' amino acid residues have been shown to be irreversible inactivators of the serine beta-lactamase from Enterobacter cloacae P99. The efficiency of inhibition (based on k2/K values) of P99 by these derivatives, ordered in decreasing potency, is: beta-phenyl-beta-Ala > L-Phe > beta-Ala > Gly > D-Phe > D-Pro > D-thiazolidine. The D- and L-Phe compounds also inhibit carboxypeptidase A. The proline and thiazolidine derivatives were phosphonamidate methyl esters, whereas the others were salts of diacids. Electrospray mass spectrometry showed that equimolar mixtures of the P99 enzyme with each of the following derivatives, Gly, D-Phe, L-Phe, beta-Ala and beta-phenyl-beta-Ala, effected efficient adduct formation (70-95% of enzyme modified), illustrating the particularly active nature of some of these compounds. All the primary amino acid derivatives gave a similar mass increment, which suggests the displacement of the variable P1' part of the molecule. This observation provides evidence that the compounds phosphonylate the active-site serine, with the phosphonamidate bond as the scissile bond and the amino acid as the leaving group. The thiazolidine derivative (phosphonamidate methyl ester) also appeared to work by the same mechanism. The comparable proline derivatives caused lower than expected mass shifts of 227-229, and therefore it is proposed that with these compounds both the amino acid and the phosphonamidate ester methoxy group were displaced at the phosphorus atom during the inhibition process. Therefore, electrospray mass spectrometry has provided both a measure of potency and a rationale for the mechanism of inhibition of P99 by these compounds.

Breakdown of the stereospecificity of DD-peptidases and beta-lactamases with thiolester substrates.

With peptide analogues of their natural substrates (the glycopeptide units of nascent peptidoglycan), the DD-peptidases exhibit a strict preference for D-Ala-D-Xaa C-termini. Gly is tolerated as the C-terminal residue, but with a significantly decreased activity. These enzymes were also known to hydrolyse various ester and thiolester analogues of their natural substrates. Some thiolesters with a C-terminal leaving group that exhibited L stereochemistry were significantly hydrolysed by some of the enzymes, particularly the Actinomadura R39 DD-peptidase, but the strict specificity for a D residue in the penultimate position was fully retained. These esters and thiolesters also behave as substrates for beta-lactamases. In this case, thiolesters exhibiting L stereochemistry in the ultimate position could also be hydrolysed, mainly by the class-C and class-D enzymes. However, more surprisingly, the class-C Enterobacter cloacae P99 beta-lactamase also hydrolysed thiolesters containing an L residue in the penultimate position, sometimes with a higher efficiency than the D isomer.

Kinetic study of interaction between BRL 42715, beta-lactamases, and D-alanyl-D-alanine peptidases.

A detailed kinetic study of the interactions between BRL 42715, a beta-lactamase-inhibiting penem, and various beta-lactamases (EC 3.5.2.6) and D-alanyl-D-alanine peptidases (DD-peptidases, EC 3.4.16.4) is presented. The compound was a very efficient inactivator of all active-site serine beta-lactamases but was hydrolyzed by the class B, Zn(2+)-containing enzymes, with very different kcat values. Inactivation of the Streptomyces sp. strain R61 extracellular DD-peptidase was not observed, and the Actinomadura sp. strain R39 DD-peptidase exhibited a low level of sensitivity to the compound.

Substrate-induced inactivation of the OXA2 beta-lactamase.

The hydrolysis time courses of 22 beta-lactam antibiotics by the class D OXA2 beta-lactamase were studied. Among these, only three appeared to correspond to the integrated Henri-Michaelis equation. 'Burst' kinetics, implying branched pathways, were observed with most penicillins, cephalosporins and with flomoxef and imipenem. Kinetic parameters characteristic of the different phases of the hydrolysis were determined for some substrates. Mechanisms generally accepted to explain such reversible partial inactivations involving branches at either the free enzyme or the acyl-enzyme were inadequate to explain the enzyme behaviour. The hydrolysis of imipenem was characterized by the occurrence of two 'bursts', and that of nitrocefin by a partial substrate-induced inactivation complicated by a competitive inhibition by the hydrolysis product.

A comparative study of class-D beta-lactamases.

Three class-D beta-lactamases (OXA2, OXA1 and PSE2) were produced and purified to protein homogeneity. 6 beta-Iodopenicillanate inactivated the OXA2 enzyme without detectable turnover. Labelling of the same beta-lactamase with 6 beta-iodo[3H]penicillanate allowed the identification of Ser-70 as the active-site serine residue. In agreement with previous reports, the apparent M(r) of the OXA2 enzyme as determined by molecular-sieve filtration, was significantly higher than that deduced from the gene sequence, but this was not due to an equilibrium between a monomer and a dimer. The heterogeneity of the OXA2 beta-lactamase on ion-exchange chromatography contrasted with the similarity of the catalytic properties of the various forms. A first overview of the enzymic properties of the three 'oxacillinases' is presented. With the OXA2 enzyme, 'burst' kinetics, implying branched pathways, seemed to prevail with many substrates.

An overview of the kinetic parameters of class B beta-lactamases.

The catalytic properties of three class B beta-lactamases (from Pseudomonas maltophilia, Aeromonas hydrophila and Bacillus cereus) were studied and compared with those of the Bacteroides fragilis enzyme. The A. hydrophila beta-lactamase exhibited a unique specificity profile and could be considered as a rather specific 'carbapenemase'. No relationships were found between sequence similarities and catalytic properties. The problem of the repartition of class B beta-lactamases into sub-classes is discussed. Improved purification methods were devised for the P. maltophilia and A. hydrophila beta-lactamases including, for the latter enzyme, a very efficient affinity chromatography step on a Zn(2+)-chelate column.

Comparison of the sequences of class A beta-lactamases and of the secondary structure elements of penicillin-recognizing proteins.

The sequences of class A beta-lactamases were compared. Four main groups of enzymes were distinguished: those from the gram-negative organisms and bacilli and two distinct groups of Streptomyces spp. The Staphylococcus aureus PC1 enzyme, although somewhat closer to the enzyme from the Bacillus group, did not belong to any of the groups of beta-lactamases. The similarities between the secondary structure elements of these enzymes and those of the class C beta-lactamases and of the Streptomyces sp. strain R61 DD-peptidase were also analyzed and tentatively extended to the class D beta-lactamases. A unified nomenclature of secondary structure elements is proposed for all the penicillin-recognizing enzymes.

Collagenolytic cysteine proteinases of bone tissue. Cathepsin B, (pro)cathepsin L and a cathepsin L-like 70 kDa proteinase.

The aim of the work was to identify and characterize the cysteine proteinases of bone tissue, as these enzymes appear necessary for bone resorption. Three cysteine-dependent proteolytic activities were separated from a homogenate of mouse calvaria by a fractionation procedure involving (NH4)2SO4 precipitation, gel filtration and ion-exchange chromatography. The first two are typical cathepsins B and L with respect to (1) their reactivity with anti-(cathepsin B) and anti-(cathepsin L) antibodies respectively, (2) their relative rate constants for inhibition by benzyloxycarbonyl-Phe-Phe-CHN2 and L-3-carboxy-trans-2,3-epoxypropionyl-L-leucylamido-(4-guanid ino)butane and (3) their enzymic properties, such as the higher activities of cathepsin L against collagen and gelatin as compared with cathepsin B, and the fact that benzyloxycarbonyl-Arg-Arg 4-methoxy-2-naphthylamide is hydrolysed only by cathepsin B. Cathepsin L was mainly recovered in its precursor form, as indicated by its apparent 40 kDa molecular mass and its relative stability at pH 7.2. The third enzyme is a cathepsin L-like proteinase with an apparent molecular mass of 70 kDa. It is immunoprecipitated by anti-(cathepsin L) antibodies, and appears as the 25 kDa band of mature cathepsin L in Western blots. It further resembles (pro)cathepsin L with regard to its activities against synthetic substrates and proteins such as collagen, and with regard to its response to various inhibitors. However, unlike (pro)cathepsin L, it is eluted as a 70 kDa protein on gel filtration (even in the presence of 1% Brij or 1 M-NaCl), it is stable at pH values as high as 9, and it exhibits stronger affinity for phenyl-Sepharose. It might thus result from a strong complex between mature cathepsin L and another entity that confers stability at alkaline pH and favours hydrophobic interactions. This 70 kDa activity was also detected in mouse muscle and long bones of Ca(2+)-deficient chicks but not in mouse liver, spleen or kidney.

Expression in Escherichia coli of the carboxy terminal domain of the BLAR sensory-transducer protein of Bacillus licheniformis as a water-soluble Mr 26,000 penicillin-binding protein.

A cloning vector has been constructed which allows production and export by Escherichia coli of the Met346-Arg601 carboxy terminal domain of the 601 amino acid BLAR sensory-transducer involved in beta-lactamase inducibility in Bacillus licheniformis. The polypeptide, referred to as BLAR-CTD, accumulates in the periplasm of E. coli in the form of a water-soluble, Mr 26,000 penicillin-binding protein. These data and homology searches suggest that BLAR has a membrane topology similar to that of other sensory-transducers involved in chemotaxis.