Young children's motivations and social cognitions toward swimming: Testing direct and moderation effects of sport competence in two large-scale studies.

Direct and moderation effects of swimming competence using an integrated model of self-determination theory (SDT) and theory of planned behaviour (TPB) were examined in two large-scale studies among young children. Specifically, we examined whether swimming competence had direct and moderation effects on social psychological variables of perceived need support, autonomous motivation, TPB social cognition constructs, and intention. In Study 1, using a cross-sectional survey of 4959 primary school children, swimming competence formed significant positive relationships with all model variables (ß =.061 to.330, p < .05) except intention (ß = -.009, p > .05), and its moderation effect on model parameters were small in size or not statistically significant. In Study 2, using a pre-post-test quasi-experiment among 1,609 primary school children, improvement of swimming competence was associated with change-scores in all model variables (ß =.046 to.230, p < .05) except subjective norm (ß =.049, p > .05). Swimming competence did not significantly moderate the parameter estimates of the integrated model (p > .05) at the change-score level. Findings indicate that swimming competence is associated with higher autonomous motivation; TPB social cognitions of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control; and intention. However, swimming competence did not moderate the parameter estimates of the integrated model.

Descriptive epidemiology and correlates of children's swimming competence.

This study examined the swimming competence of primary school children, and how it was related to swimming activity, non-fatal aquatic events, and demographic factors. Primary school students (N = 4959; female = 2705, male = 2241; age range = 5 to 14 years) across 28 schools in the 15 districts of Hong Kong completed the Swimming Competence Questionnaire, and questions about their swimming experience, non-fatal aquatic events, and demographic variables. Descriptive statistics showed that over 60% of children could swim more than 5m, but less than 50% could swim over 25m. Over 50% of children were able to perform some basic swimming skills (e.g., holding breath underwater, floating, poolside/kickboard kicking, and treading water). Swimming competence was positively predicted by the demographic factors (i.e., age, sex, family income, and parents' highest education level), swimming experience, learning experience, and swimming location. Treading water was the only factor of swimming competence that established asignificant negative association with non-fatal aquatic events. Current results can be used to target key groups to improve children's swimming competence and reduce non-fatal aquatic events; children from lower socio-economic backgrounds and with less swimming experience should be encouraged to participate in more formal learn to swim lessons.

Validation of the swimming competence questionnaire for children.

Two studies were employed to test the reliability and validity of the Swimming Competence Questionnaire (SCQ) among primary school children. Study 1 was a cross-sectional survey in 4959 primary school children. Study 2 was a pre-post-test quasi-experiment among 1609 primary school children who underwent a 20-lesson learn-to-swim programme. In Study 1, exploratory structural equation modelling revealed excellent goodness-of-fit and scale reliability for a two-factor model comprising distance and skill factors, which supported the construct and convergent validity. SCQ scores were significantly and positively correlated with swimming outcomes (i.e., self-efficacy, intention, swimming frequency), which supported SCQ's concurrent and criterion validity. Average variance extracted for the SCQ factors exceeded cut-off criteria supporting discriminant validity. In Study 2, pre-test SCQ scores correlated significantly and positively with the SCQ scores, self-efficacy, intention, and swimming frequency at post-test, which supported SCQ's test-retest reliability and predictive validity. Positive intraclass correlation between SCQ scores and coach ratings at post-test provided evidence for SCQ's inter-rater reliability. SCQ scores significantly improved at post-test, which supported SCQ's ecological validity. In conclusion, findings indicate that the SCQ is a valid and reliable measure to assess primary school children's swimming competence, in terms of swimming distance and basic water survival skills.

Social psychological aspects of ACL injury prevention and rehabilitation: An integrated model for behavioral adherence.

Managing rehabilitation for ACL injury is dependent on uptake of, and compliance with, medical and safety recommendations. In this paper, we propose a multi-theory model that integrates self-determination theory and the theory of planned behavior to identify the motivational determinants ACL injury prevention and management behaviors and the processes involved.