Comparison of Fixed and Rising Displacement Rates of CO2 for Euthanasia of Aged Rats.

This study compared euthanasia induced by rising concentrations of CO2 in aged rats (n = 59) using different gas displacement rates. Rats were preimplanted with cardiovascular telemetry devices and had been previously used for short term safety pharmacology studies. Once fully recovered from previous studies, rats were euthanized using rising concentrations of CO2. Three groups were exposed to gas displacement at fixed flow rates of 30%, 40%, and 50%, and 3 groups were exposed to increased flow rates at predetermined, one-minute intervals (10 to 30%, 20 to 40%, and 30 to 50%). Comparisons were based on the time taken to reach 4 critical endpoints: dyspnea, ataxia, recumbency, and death. The preimplanted telemetry devices were used to record cardiovascular parameters. Video recordings of the euthanasias were performed to allow behavioral assessment by a blind observer. The histologic effects of the different concentrations were also evaluated. No significant differences were detected between the groups in behavioral scores or histopathology. Groups of rats exposed to higher levels of CO2 had a shorter time to loss of consciousness and death than did rats exposed to lower concentrations of CO2. No statistically significant differences were detected in the time by which rats showed visual signs of dyspnea. Slow CO2 displacement rates of CO2 may prolong the time necessary for euthanasia yet provide no appreciable improvement in welfare in aged rats and should therefore be avoided.

RNA Polymerase II transcription independent of TBP in murine embryonic stem cells.

Transcription by RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) is initiated by the hierarchical assembly of the pre-initiation complex onto promoter DNA. Decades of research have shown that the TATA-box binding protein (TBP) is essential for Pol II loading and initiation. Here, we report instead that acute depletion of TBP in mouse embryonic stem cells has no global effect on ongoing Pol II transcription. In contrast, acute TBP depletion severely impairs RNA Polymerase III initiation. Furthermore, Pol II transcriptional induction occurs normally upon TBP depletion. This TBP-independent transcription mechanism is not due to a functional redundancy with the TBP paralog TRF2, though TRF2 also binds to promoters of transcribed genes. Rather, we show that the TFIID complex can form and, despite having reduced TAF4 and TFIIA binding when TBP is depleted, the Pol II machinery is sufficiently robust in sustaining TBP-independent transcription.

Copper-based redox shuttles supported by preorganized tetradentate ligands for dye-sensitized solar cells.

Three copper redox shuttles ([Cu(1)]2+/1+, [Cu(2)]2+/1+, and [Cu(3)]2+/1+) featuring tetradentate ligands were synthesized and evaluated computationally, electrochemically, and in dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) devices using a benchmark organic dye, Y123. Neutral polyaromatic ligands with limited flexibility were targeted as a strategy to improve solar-to-electrical energy conversion by reducing voltage losses associated with redox shuttle electron transfer events. Inner-sphere electron transfer reorganization energies (λ) were computed quantum chemically and compared to the commonly used [Co(bpy)3]3+/2+ redox shuttle which has a reported λ value of 0.61 eV. The geometrically constrained biphenyl-based Cu redox shuttles investigated here have lower reorganization energies (0.34-0.53 eV) and thus can potentially operate with lower driving forces for dye regeneration (ΔGreg) in DSC devices when compared to [Co(bpy)3]3+/2+-based devices. The rigid tetradentate ligand design promotes more efficient electron transfer reactions leading to an improved JSC (14.1 mA cm-2), higher stability due to the chelate effect, and a decrease in VlossOC for one of the copper redox shuttle-based devices.

The curvature sensitivity of a membrane-binding amphipathic helix can be modulated by the charge on a flanking region.

Membrane-induced amphipathic helices (m-AH) can act as membrane curvature sensors by binding preferentially to hydrophobic lipid packing defects enriched in curved surfaces. Reliance on hydrophobicity and membrane curvature for binding is enhanced when electrostatic interactions are weak. We probed the role of modifying membrane and protein charge on the curvature sensing of two m-AH-containing proteins, CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) and α-synuclein (α-syn). The m-AH domains in both proteins are flanked by disordered tails with multiple phosphoserines (CCT) or acidic residues (α-syn), which we mutated to glutamate or serine to modify protein charge. Analysis of binding to vesicles of varying curvature showed that increasing the negative charge of the tail region decreased the binding strength and augmented the curvature dependence, especially for CCT. We attribute this to charge repulsion. Conversely, increasing the membrane negative charge dampened the curvature dependence. Our data suggest that discrimination of curved versus flat membranes with high negative charge could be modulated by phosphorylation.

Method for differentiating left superior pulmonary vein exit conduction from pseudo-exit conduction.

BACKGROUND: Electrical isolation of pulmonary vein (PV) conduction from the left atrium (LA) is the cornerstone of successful atrial fibrillation (AF) ablation. Exit block is confirmed by the absence of LA capture during pacing from a circular mapping catheter positioned in the PV; however, far-field capture of the left atrial appendage (LAA) (pseudo-pulmonary vein exit conduction) can occur. In this study, we evaluated a methodology for identifying pseudo-exit conduction. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 135 consecutive AF patients undergoing PV isolation were studied. After circumferential ablation established PV entrance block, circumferential pacing (10 mA at 2.0 msec) was performed to assess exit block. In 16 (11.9%) patients, pacing the anterior poles of the left superior PV (LSPV) captured the LA. To differentiate true PV exit conduction from pseudo-exit conduction, the ablation catheter was positioned within the LAA during PV pacing. LAA activation preceding PV capture was consistent with far-field capture and this was confirmed by demonstrating local capture and exit block with decreasing pacing output. Using this approach, 14 patients (10.4%) were identified with pseudo-exit conduction. CONCLUSIONS: Due to the close proximity between the LSPV and LAA, pseudo-exit conduction is not uncommon and may lead to the erroneous conclusion that the LSPV is not isolated. Using this method to differentiate pseudo-exit conduction from true exit conduction should prevent unnecessary ablation after achievement of complete PV isolation.

Yeast eukaryotic initiation factor 4B (eIF4B) enhances complex assembly between eIF4A and eIF4G in vivo.

Translation initiation factor eIF4F (eukaryotic initiation factor 4F), composed of eIF4E, eIF4G, and eIF4A, binds to the m(7)G cap structure of mRNA and stimulates recruitment of the 43S preinitiation complex and subsequent scanning to the initiation codon. The HEAT domain of eIF4G stabilizes the active conformation of eIF4A required for its RNA helicase activity. Mammalian eIF4B also stimulates eIF4A activity, but this function appears to be lacking in yeast, making it unclear how yeast eIF4B (yeIF4B/Tif3) stimulates translation. We identified Ts(-) mutations in the HEAT domains of yeast eIF4G1 and eIF4G2 that are suppressed by overexpressing either yeIF4B or eIF4A, whereas others are suppressed only by eIF4A overexpression. Importantly, suppression of HEAT domain substitutions by yeIF4B overexpression was correlated with the restoration of native eIF4A·eIF4G complexes in vivo, and the rescue of specific mutant eIF4A·eIF4G complexes by yeIF4B was reconstituted in vitro. Association of eIF4A with WT eIF4G in vivo also was enhanced by yeIF4B overexpression and was impaired in cells lacking yeIF4B. Furthermore, we detected native complexes containing eIF4G and yeIF4B but lacking eIF4A. These and other findings lead us to propose that yeIF4B acts in vivo to promote eIF4F assembly by enhancing a conformation of the HEAT domain of yeast eIF4G conducive for stable binding to eIF4A.

Differential effects of adenosine on pulmonary vein ectopy after pulmonary vein isolation: implications for arrhythmogenesis.

BACKGROUND: The mechanism of pulmonary vein (PV) triggers of atrial fibrillation remains unclear. We performed adenosine (ADO) testing after PV isolation to characterize spontaneous dissociated PV rhythm and ADO-induced PV ectopy. METHODS AND RESULTS: Seventy-four patients (61 men; age, 61±10 years) undergoing PV isolation for atrial fibrillation were studied. For each isolated PV, dissociated ectopy was recorded and ADO was administered. After isolation of 270 PVs, 50 PVs with dissociated ectopy were identified. In 42 PVs exhibiting PV rhythm, ADO resulted in PV rhythm suppression in 35 (83%) PVs, with all occurring during ADO-induced bradycardia, and in PV rhythm acceleration in 13 (31%) PVs, with all occurring after resolution of ADO-induced bradycardia. In 11 PVs, both ADO-induced PV rhythm acceleration and suppression were seen. Among 220 electrically silent PVs, ADO induced PV ectopy in 28 (13%) veins. The timing of ADO-induced PV ectopy with respect to ADO effects on heart rate varied. ADO induced PV ectopy during the early phase of ADO effect only in 12 PVs, during the late phase of ADO effect only in 8 PVs, and during both early and late phases of ADO effect in 8 PVs. CONCLUSIONS: The mechanism of spontaneous PV rhythm after isolation is likely automaticity, given the close association of ADO effects on PV rhythm with its chronotropic and dromotropic effects. However, ADO can induce PV ectopy in electrically silent PVs in a manner not closely tied to its effects on heart rate and may be because of the activation of autonomic triggers.

The amphipathic helix of an enzyme that regulates phosphatidylcholine synthesis remodels membranes into highly curved nanotubules.

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) is an amphitropic protein regulating phosphatidylcholine synthesis. Lipid-induced folding of its amphipathic helical (AH) membrane-binding domain activates the enzyme. In this study we examined the membrane deforming property of CCT in vitro by monitoring conversion of vesicles to tubules, using transmission electron microscopy. Vesicle tubulation was proportional to the membrane density of CCT and proceeded either as growth from a pre-formed surface bud, or as a global transformation of roughly spherical vesicles into progressively thinner tubules. The tubulation pathway depended on the lipid compositional heterogeneity of the vesicles, with heterogeneous mixtures supporting the bud-extension pathway. Co-existence of vesicles alongside thick and thin tubules suggested that CCT can discriminate between flat membrane surfaces and those with emerging curvature, binding preferentially to the latter. Thin tubules had a limiting diameter of ~12nm, likely representing bilayer cylinders with a very high density of 1 CCT/50 lipids. The AH segment was necessary and sufficient for tubulation. AH regions from diverse CCT sources, including C. elegans, had tubulation activity that correlated with α-helical length. The AH motifs in CCT and the Parkinson's-related protein, α-synuclein, have similar features, however the CCT AH was more effective in its membrane remodeling function. That CCT can deform vesicles of physiologically relevant composition suggests that CCT binding to membranes may initiate deformations required for organelle morphogenesis and at the same time stimulate synthesis of the PC required for the development of these regions.

Trp53 regulates Notch 4 signaling through Mdm2.

Notch receptors and their ligands have crucial roles in development and tumorigenesis. We present evidence demonstrating the existence of an antagonistic relationship between Notch 4 and Trp53, which is controlled by the Mdm2-dependent ubiquitylation and degradation of the Notch receptor. We show that this signal-controlling mechanism is mediated by physical interactions between Mdm2 and Notch 4 and suggest the existence of a trimeric complex between Trp53, Notch 4 and Mdm2, which ultimately regulates Notch activity. Functional studies indicate that Trp53 can suppress NICD4-induced anchorage-independent growth in mammary epithelial cells and present evidence showing that Trp53 has a pivotal role in the suppression of Notch-associated tumorigenesis in the mammary gland.

Multiple elements in the eIF4G1 N-terminus promote assembly of eIF4G1•PABP mRNPs in vivo.

eIF4G is the scaffold subunit of the eIF4F complex, whose binding domains for eIF4E and poly(A)-binding protein (PABP) are thought to enhance formation of activated eIF4F•mRNA•PABP complexes competent to recruit 43S pre-initiation complexes. We found that the RNA-binding region (RNA1) in the N-terminal domain (NTD) of yeast eIF4G1 can functionally substitute for the PABP-binding segment to rescue the function of an eIF4G1-459 mutant impaired for eIF4E binding. Assaying RNA-dependent PABP-eIF4G association in cell extracts suggests that RNA1, the PABP-binding domain, and two conserved elements (Box1 and Box2) between these segments have overlapping functions in forming native eIF4G•mRNA•PABP complexes. In vitro experiments confirm the role of RNA1 in stabilizing eIF4G-mRNA association, and further indicate that RNA1 and Box1 promote PABP binding, in addition to RNA binding, by the eIF4G1 NTD. Our findings indicate that PABP-eIF4G association is only one of several interactions that stabilize eIF4F•mRNA complexes, and emphasize that closed-loop mRNP formation via PABP-eIF4G interaction is non-essential in vivo. Interestingly, two other RNA-binding regions in eIF4G1 have critical functions downstream of eIF4F•mRNA assembly.

Cripto-1 is a cell surface marker for a tumorigenic, undifferentiated subpopulation in human embryonal carcinoma cells.

Deregulation of stem cells is associated with the generation and progression of malignant tumors. In addition, genes that are associated with early embryogenesis are frequently expressed in cancer. Cripto-1 (CR-1), a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-linked glycoprotein, is expressed during early embryogenesis and in various human carcinomas. We demonstrated that human embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells are heterogeneous for CR-1 expression and consist of two distinct subpopulations: a CR-1(High) and a CR-1(Low) population. By segregating CR-1(High) and CR-1(Low) populations of NTERA2/D1 EC cells by fluorescence-activated cell sorting, we demonstrated that CR-1(High) cells were more tumorigenic than CR-1(Low) cells by an in vitro tumor sphere assay and by in vivo xenograft formation. The CR-1(High) population was enriched in mRNA expression for the pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cell genes Oct4, Sox2, and Nanog. CR-1 expression in NTERA2/D1 cells was regulated by a Smad2/3-dependent autocrine loop, by the ES cell-related transcription factors Oct4/Nanog, and partially by the DNA methylation status of the promoter region. These results demonstrate that CR-1 expression is enriched in an undifferentiated, tumorigenic subpopulation and is regulated by key regulators of pluripotent stem cells.

Enhancement of Notch receptor maturation and signaling sensitivity by Cripto-1.

Nodal and Notch signaling pathways play essential roles in vertebrate development. Through a yeast two-hybrid screening, we identified Notch3 as a candidate binding partner of the Nodal coreceptor Cripto-1. Coimmunoprecipitation analysis confirmed the binding of Cripto-1 with all four mammalian Notch receptors. Deletion analyses revealed that the binding of Cripto-1 and Notch1 is mediated by the Cripto-1/FRL-1/Cryptic domain of Cripto-1 and the C-terminal region of epidermal growth factor-like repeats of Notch1. Binding of Cripto-1 to Notch1 occurred mainly in the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi network. Cripto-1 expression resulted in the recruitment of Notch1 protein into lipid raft microdomains and enhancement of the furin-like protein convertase-mediated proteolytic maturation of Notch1 (S1 cleavage). Enhanced S1 cleavage resulted in the sensitization to ligand-induced activation of Notch signaling. In addition, knockdown of Cripto-1 expression in human and mouse embryonal carcinoma cells desensitized the ligand-induced Notch signaling activation. These results suggest a novel role of Cripto-1 in facilitating the posttranslational maturation of Notch receptors.

Imaging case study of the month. Thyroglossal duct cyst with intralaryngeal extension.

OBJECTIVES: Thyroglossal duct cysts with intralaryngeal extension are rare. We present only the 10th reported case in the literature. METHODS: The clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of the patient are reviewed and summarized. The uniqueness of the case, as well as the diagnostic and treatment pitfalls of this subgroup of patients, is presented. RESULTS: Our patient, at 76 years of age, is the only woman and the oldest person reported to have had a thyroglossal duct cyst with intralaryngeal extension. CONCLUSIONS: Intralaryngeal extension should be considered when there is hoarseness, dysphagia, or dyspnea associated with a thyroglossal duct cyst. Office laryngoscopy and computed tomography make the diagnosis. Care must be taken with airway management and intraoperative dissection for good outcomes.

The Tie2 5' untranslated region is inhibitory to 5' end-mediated translation initiation.

Tie2 is an endothelium-specific receptor tyrosine kinase required for normal blood vessel maturation, remodeling, and stability. Tie2 expression is also upregulated in various cancers implicating a role in tumor angiogenesis. Its mRNA transcript contains an unusually long (372 nucleotides) 5' untranslated region (UTR) with five upstream open reading frames (uORFs) and an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) that allows this mRNA to be translated under hypoxic conditions. This sets up an alternative initiation pathway with the potential to clash with 5' end-mediated initiation from the same template. Herein, we define experimental conditions under which the Tie2 IRES is not active, allowing us to assess the contribution of the 5' UTR to cap-dependent translation on the Tie2 transcript. We find that the Tie2 5' UTR is inhibitory to translation initiation with ribosome flow decreasing following encounters with each uORF. No single uORF was found to harbor significant cis-acting inhibitory activity. Our results suggest that the uORFs within the Tie2 5' UTR serve to decrease the percent of ribosomes competent for reinitiation as these traverse the mRNA 5' UTR, thus minimizing interference with the IRES.

Ribavirin is not a functional mimic of the 7-methyl guanosine mRNA cap.

Ribavirin is a guanosine ribonucleoside analog that displays broad-spectrum anti-viral activity and is currently used for the treatment of some viral infections. Ribavirin has recently been proposed to also be a mimic of the 7-methyl guanosine cap found at the 5' end of mRNAs. To obtain supporting functional data for this hypothesis, we assessed the ability of ribavirin triphosphate to interfere with the interaction between eIF4E and 7-methyl guanosine capped mRNA. In chemical cross-linking assays, cap-affinity chromatography, and cap-dependent translation assays, ribavirin was unable to function as a cap analog.

Internal translation initiation mediated by the angiogenic factor Tie2.

Tie2 is an endothelium-specific receptor tyrosine kinase required for normal blood vessel maturation. We report that Tie2 mRNA translation is maintained under hypoxic conditions. To identify the mechanism responsible for this, we undertook structure/function analysis of the Tie2 5'-untranslated region (UTR). Transcription start site mapping indicates the existence of a several mRNA isoforms containing unusually long 5'-UTRs (>350 nucleotides) with five upstream open reading frames. We find internal ribosome binding activity that allows the Tie2 mRNA to initiate in a cap-independent fashion. Our data provide a framework for understanding how Tie2 mRNA is translated despite a cumbersome structured 5'-UTR and how its production is secured under unfavorable environmental conditions.

Peroxynitrite reacts with 8-nitropurines to yield 8-oxopurines.

Peroxynitrite reacts with 2'-deoxyguanosine to yield several major products, including 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) and 8-nitroguanine (8-nitroGua). While the terminal products formed during the reaction of 8-oxodG with peroxynitrite have been previously characterized, those formed from 8-nitroGua have not. To identify these products, 9-ethyl-8-nitroxanthine was used as a model for 8-nitroGua, since the former could be easily synthesized in high yield, and facilitated reversed-phase HPLC separation of the resulting products. Using this model substrate, the products formed during the peroxynitrite reaction were identified as the ethyl derivatives of oxaluric acid, 5-iminoimidazolidin-2,4-dione, III, [N-nitro-N'-[2,4-dioxo-imidazolidine-5-ylidene]-urea, V, dehydroallantoin, parabanic acid, cyanuric acid, and uric acid. Upon the basis of the previous studies with 8-oxodG, these products were recognized as those expected to arise from peroxynitrite-mediated uric acid oxidation. Furthermore, the presence of uric acid in the reaction mixture led us to propose a model in which the 8-nitropurine is first converted to the 8-oxopurine which is further oxidized by peroxynitrite to give the observed final products. We have also provided evidence suggesting that the peroxynitrite anion, acting as a nucleophile, might be responsible for the initial conversion of the 8-nitropurine to the 8-oxopurine and that a hydroxyl radical or oxidative process is less likely to explain this conversion.