The Ferric Citrate Uptake System Encoded in a Novel bla CTX-M-3- and bla TEM-1-Harboring Conjugative Plasmid Contributes to the Virulence of Escherichia coli.

Escherichia coli is one major cause of bacterial infections and can horizontally acquire antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes through conjugation. Because conjugative plasmids can rapidly spread among bacteria of different species, the plasmids carrying both antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes may pose a significant threat to public health. Therefore, the identification and characterization of these plasmids may facilitate a better understanding of E. coli pathogenesis and the development of new strategies against E. coli infections. Because iron uptake ability is a potential virulence trait of bacteria, we screened for E. coli conjugative plasmids able to confer both iron uptake ability and ampicillin resistance. The plasmid pEC41, which was derived from the bacteremia clinical isolate EC41, was identified. EC41, which carried the fimH27 allele, belonged to sequence type (ST) 405 and phylogroup D. According to the sequencing analyses, pEC41 was 86 kb in size, and its backbone structure was almost identical to that of another highly conjugative plasmid, pCTX-M3, in which the extended-spectrum ß-lactamase gene bla CTX-M-3 was originally identified. pEC41 carried bla CTX-M-3 and bla TEM-1. The ferric citrate uptake (fec) system was identified in pEC41 and was responsible for conferring iron uptake ability. The fec system contributes to the pathogenesis of EC41 in systemic infections but not in urinary tract infections (UTIs). However, this system promoted competitive fitness of a cystitis-associated clinical isolate to colonize urinary tracts. Additionally, the distribution of the fec system was related to E. coli isolates associated with human bacteremia and UTIs. In summary, the present study identified a novel conjugative plasmid, pEC41, which conferred both antimicrobial resistance and an extra iron uptake ability to E. coli. The iron uptake ability was encoded in the fec system and contributed to E. coli pathogenesis. This study is the first to show that the fec system is a virulence factor in E. coli.

Peptidoglycan Endopeptidase Spr of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Contributes to Kidney Infections and Competitive Fitness During Bladder Colonization.

Uropathogenic E scherichia coli (UPEC) is the most common pathogen of urinary tract infections (UTIs). Antibiotic therapy is the conventional measure to manage such infections. However, the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance has reduced the efficacy of antibiotic treatment. Given that the bacterial factors required for the full virulence of the pathogens are potential therapeutic targets, identifying such factors may facilitate the development of novel therapeutic strategies against UPEC UTIs. The peptidoglycan (PG) endopeptidase Spr (also named MepS) is required for PG biogenesis in E. coli. In the present study, we found that Spr deficiency attenuated the ability of UPEC to infect kidneys and induced a fitness defect during bladder colonization in a mouse model of UTI. Based on the liquid chromatography (LC)/mass spectrometry (MS)/MS analysis of the bacterial envelope, spr deletion changed the levels of some envelope-associated proteins, suggesting that Spr deficiency interfere with the components of the bacterial structure. Among the proteins, FliC was significantly downregulated in the spr mutant, which is resulted in reduced motility. Lack of Spr might hinder the function of the flagellar transcriptional factor FlhDC to decrease FliC expression. The motility downregulation contributed to the reduced fitness in urinary tract colonization. Additionally, spr deletion compromised the ability of UPEC to evade complement-mediated attack and to resist intracellular killing of phagocytes, consequently decreasing UPEC bloodstream survival. Spr deficiency also interfered with the UPEC morphological switch from bacillary to filamentous shapes during UTI. It is known that bacterial filamentation protects UPEC from phagocytosis by phagocytes. In conclusion, Spr deficiency was shown to compromise multiple virulence properties of UPEC, leading to attenuation of the pathogen in urinary tract colonization and bloodstream survival. These findings indicate that Spr is a potential antimicrobial target for further studies attempting to develop novel strategies in managing UPEC UTIs.

Detection of Plasmid-Mediated ß-Lactamase Genes and Emergence of a Novel AmpC (CMH-1) in Enterobacter cloacae at a Medical Center in Southern Taiwan.

The plasmid-mediated extended-spectrum ß-lactamases (ESBLs) and AmpC ß-lactamases in Enterobacter spp. have increasingly been reported. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of the plasmid-mediated ß-lactamases in Enterobacter cloacae from bloodstream isolates at a medical center in southern Taiwan. ESBL and ampC genes were detected by PCRs and DNA sequencing. Conjugation experiments were conducted to confirm the transferability of the genetic resistance trait. Among 41 non-repetitive blood isolates of cefuroxime-resistant E. cloacae, eight isolates exhibited ESBL phenotype confirmed by double-disk synergistic tests. Nearly all the strains were susceptible to carbapenems. The prevalence rate of the plasmid-mediated blaampC genes was 73% (30/41), including one blaDHA-1, one blaMIR-6, two novel blaCMH-1 genes and other blaACT-like genes. Coexistence of plasmid-mediated blaACT and ESBL genes (10 with blaSHV-12 and one with blaCTX-M-3) was observed. Successful transmissions of the blaACT and blaCMH-1 were demonstrated in some transconjugants. The inducible or derepressed CMH-1 had expanded activity of isolates versus ceftazidime. Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR analysis and pulsotype showed distinct patterns suggesting non-clonal relationship. In conclusion, plasmid-mediated blaACT-like ampC genes in E. cloacae isolates have been highly prevalent in southern Taiwan and may continue genetic evolution, contributing to the complexities in antibiotic-resistant mechanisms.

Comparison of synergism between colistin, fosfomycin and tigecycline against extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates or with carbapenem resistance.

PURPOSE: To investigate the synergistic and bactericidal effects of antimicrobial combinations of any two of colistin, fosfomycin and tigecycline against the nine extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP) clinical isolates, including 4 carbapenem-susceptible strains and five imipenem and/or meropenem-resistant strains. METHODS: In vitro synergism and bactericidal activity of combination of colistin, fosfomycin and tigecycline were evaluated by time-kill studies in standard inoculum of bacterial densities of a suspension containing 5 × 105 CFU/mL by using 1/2× MIC for each alone, and both 1/2× and 1/4× MIC for any two drugs. The settings of low MIC dosing were allowed to rapidly survey the most active drug combination. RESULTS: The most active combination group was colistin plus tigecycline, showing synergy in 8 isolates and bactericidal activities in 6 isolates by using concentrations of 1/2× MIC and 1/4× MIC, respectively. The least active combination was tigecycline plus fosfomycin, which showed synergy in only 4 isolates and no bactericidal activities by using concentrations of 1/2× MIC and 1/4× MIC, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of tigecycline and colistin may be considered as a last-resort approach to the ESBL-producing KP infections, especially those isolates with carbapenem resistance.

Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolates from Meningitis: Epidemiology, Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance.

Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP) resistance to broad-spectrum cephalosporin (BSC) in meningitis is important because of limited therapeutic options. To investigate the antibiotic resistance, virulence and epidemiology of KP in meningitis, we conducted a retrospective study for 33 non-metastatic isolates, including primary meningitis (n = 20) and post-craniotomy meningitis (n = 13) collected from 1999 to 2013. BSC resistance was found in 9 (27.3%) isolates, all from post-craniotomy meningitis, harboring bla SHV-5 (n = 6), bla CMY-2 (n = 2), bla DHA-1 (n = 2), and bla TEM-1B (n = 1). Positive virulence factors were hypermucoviscosity (n = 22), larger bacterial size (n = 24), virulent capsule serotypes (n = 24, K2, 11; K1, 5; K57, 3; K5, 2; K20, 2 and K54, 1), rmpA (n = 23), rmpA 2 (n = 20), aerobactin gene (n = 22) and high-grade serum resistance (n = 23, 69.7%). Higher mouse lethality (LD50 < 106) was found in 16 isolates (48.5%). Post-craniotomy isolates were significantly less virulent than primary meningitis isolates, except for similar serum resistance capability. The pulsotype and sequence typing (ST) results were diverse. A minor cluster with pulsotype C and ST23 (n = 5) was identified in primary meningitis isolates. In conclusion, virulence factors and BSC resistance corresponded to about 70% and 30% of KP meningitis isolates respectively. BSC remains appropriate for treating primary meningitis, whereas meropenem is indicated for post-craniotomy meningitis empirically.

Impacts of Hypervirulence Determinants on Clinical Features and Outcomes of Bacteremia Caused by Extended-Spectrum ß-Lactamase-Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae.

We investigated the implications of hypervirulence determinants on clinical features of 48 adult patients with bacteremia caused by extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Isolates in the hypervirulence group included any of the following virulence determinants: K1/K2 capsule serotypes, hypermucoviscosity phenotype, rmpA gene, or rmpA2 gene. Nonhypervirulence group isolates were negative for all of the above virulence factors. In this study, all isolates used were non-K1/K2 strains. Statistically significant differences were observed in clinical features of patients between the two groups. The hypervirulent isolates (n = 19), including 11 isolates with the hypermucoviscosity phenotype, 15 with the rmpA gene, and 16 with the rmpA2 gene, were more commonly recovered from diabetic patients and mainly manifested as secondary bacteremia (such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, or other localized infections). The nonhypervirulent isolates (n = 29) were more commonly recovered from patients after prolonged hospital stays (>30 days) and mostly manifested as primary bacteremia. The overall in-hospital mortality was 56.3%. Hazard ratio (HR) analysis revealed the following positive predictors for mortality: nosocomial infection, stay in an intensive care unit, no removal of the central venous catheter, Charlson comorbidity score, and APACHE II score (≧15). The negative predictors were initial appropriate antibiotic therapy (HR 0.42) and urinary tract infection (HR 0.19). Charlson score was an independent confounder based on multivariate analysis (HR 1.43, 95% confidence interval 1.04-1.99). In conclusion, hypervirulence determinants played a role in causing secondary infections in diabetic patients; however, the presence of morbidity cofactors could themselves influence mortality, despite the absence of hypervirulence determinants.

In Vitro Activity of Imipenem and Colistin against a Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolate Coproducing SHV-31, CMY-2, and DHA-1.

We investigated the synergism of colistin and imipenem against a multidrug-resistant K. pneumoniae isolate which was recovered from a severe hip infection. PCR and DNA sequencing were used to characterize the outer membrane porin genes and the resistance genes mediating the common ß-lactamases and carbapenemases. Synergism was evaluated by time-kill studies. The bla SHV-31, bla CMY-2, and bla DHA-1 were detected. Outer membrane porin genes analysis revealed loss of ompK36 and frame-shift mutation of ompK35. The common carbapenemase genes were not found. Time-kill studies demonstrated that a combination of 1x MIC of colistin (2 mg/L) and 1x MIC of imipenem (8 mg/L) was synergistic and bactericidal but with inoculum effect. Bactericidal activity without inoculum effect was observed by concentration of 2x MIC of colistin alone or plus 2x MIC of imipenem. In conclusion, colistin plus imipenem could be an alternative option to treat carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae infections.

Low prevalence of rmpA and high tendency of rmpA mutation correspond to low virulence of extended spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates.

Invasive syndrome caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP), including liver abscess, is mainly caused by community-acquired strains with characteristics of positive hypermucoviscosity (HV) phenotype and regulator of mucoid phenotype A (rmpA) and transcriptional activator (rmpA2) genes. Extended- spectrum ß-lactamase-producing KP (ESBL-KP) is commonly nosocomial and rarely HV-positive. We aimed to explore the reasons of the rarer prevalence of HV phenotype, rmpA and rmpA2 as well as the virulence phenotype among the ESBL-KP isolates from clinical specimens than those non-ESBL isolates. The ß-lactamase genes, rmpA, rmpA2 and genes for K capsule serotype of 440 KP isolates were analyzed. The virulence of the isolates was characterized by the mouse lethality experiments. The prevalence rates of HV phenotype (∼ 50% vs. < 10%) as well as rmpA and rmpA2 genes (∼ 50-60% vs. < 20-30%) were significantly higher in non-ESBL group than in the ESBL group (p < 0.0001). Expression of HV phenotype in the rmpA-positive KP isolates was significantly rarer in the ESBL group than in non-ESBL group (33.3% vs. 91.9%, p < 0.0001). The frameshift mutations of rmpA and/or rmpA2 corresponded to negative HV phenotype of KP isolates that harbored the rmpA and/or rmpA2, resulting in variable mouse lethality (LD50, ∼ 10(3) - >5 × 10(7) CFU). The mutation rates might significantly differ among KP isolates from various sources. Virulence was dependent on rmpA-related HV phenotype. In conclusion, ESBL-KP isolates were less hypermucoviscous and less virulent than non-ESBL KP isolates, mostly due to concurrently lower carriage and higher mutation rates of the rmpA and rmpA2 genes.

Intrapersonal mutation of rmpA and rmpA2: A reason for negative hypermucoviscosity phenotype and low virulence of rmpA-positive Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates.

Two Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were simultaneously recovered from blood and urine cultures of the same patient. Both isolates were identical in genomic pulsotype by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). However, the hypermucoviscosity phenotype was confirmed in the blood strain but not the urine strain. A previously unrelated liver abscess K. pneumoniae hypermucoviscous isolate was used as a control. PCR, DNA cloning and sequencing for the plasmid-borne rmpA and rmpA2 genes and the chromosome-borne rmpA gene (c-rmpA) revealed negative c-rmpA with natural frame-shift mutation of rmpA and rmpA2 genes in the urine strain. The blood strain was negative for c-rmpA with rmpA2 mutation but no mutation in rmpA. The control strain was positive for c-rmpA with rmpA2 mutation but no mutation in rmpA and showed the highest virulence in mouse lethality experiments [median lethal dose (LD50)=50CFU], which was followed by the blood strain (LD50=2.47×103CFU) and the urine strain (LD50>107CFU). The control and blood strains were highly serum resistant, whereas the urine strain was sensitive to serum killing. In conclusion, intrapersonal concurrent mutation of rmpA and rmpA2 genes in the absence of c-rmpA could be a reason for the negative hypermucoviscosity phenotype and low virulence in rmpA-positive K. pneumoniae.

In vitro activity of colistin sulfate against Enterobacteriaceae producing extended-spectrum ß-lactamases.

The widespread multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae pose a serious therapeutic challenge. Colistin and tigecycline are potential antimicrobial agents for treating infections caused by extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae. We evaluated the in-vitro activity of colistin sulfate against 253 ESBL producers isolated from patients admitted to a medical center in southern Taiwan (Escherichia coli, n = 82; Klebsiella pneumoniae, n = 102; Enterobacter cloacae, n = 34; and Serratia marcescens, n = 35). Colistin showed promising in-vitro activity against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and E. cloacae, but not S. marcescens. One ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae strain with resistance to carbapenems (ertapenem, imipenem, and meropenem) was selected for time-killing studies. A combination of colistin and tigecycline showed synergism, but there was an inoculum effect. In conclusion, colistin was active against most ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae, and a combination of colistin with tigecycline was synergistic against some highly resistant strains, even those with carbapenem resistance.

The impact of inadequate terminal disinfection on an outbreak of imipenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in an intensive care unit.

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to investigate an outbreak caused by imipenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (IRAB) in a medical intensive care unit (ICU) in a regional hospital. METHODS: In response to an IRAB outbreak from October 2012 to February 2013, we developed several infection control measures, including an extensive review process of environmental cleaning and disinfection, and used molecular methods to identify each clinical and environmental IRAB isolate. RESULTS: During this five-month period, 22 patients were colonized with IRAB and 18 patients had IRAB infections. The in-hospital mortality rate was significantly higher among patients with infections rather than colonizations (44.4% vs 9.1%, p = 0.028). Additionally, nine environmental specimens, including five specimens collected after terminal disinfection, were positive for IRAB. 12 environmental isolates and 28 of 36 available clinical isolates belonged to one unique pulsotype A, which was confirmed by molecular methods. We found the concentration of disinfectant, 0.08% sodium hypochlorite, was inadequate. After correcting the environmental cleansing methods, the surveillance study showed no further IRAB isolates on the control panel surfaces of the medical equipment or in patients in the ICU. Additionally, an in vitro study of IRAB immersed in different concentrations of sodium hypochlorite showed that 0.5% sodium hypochlorite eradicates IRAB after 30 seconds of inoculation, but 0.08% sodium hypochlorite only reduces the bacterial load. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of the preparation of disinfectants to adequately achieve environmental disinfection in the control of IRAB outbreaks in the ICU.

A fish-stunning wound infection with acute cardiac injury.

Vibrio vulnificus typically causes septicemia and necrotic wound infection. Among V vulnificus­related complications, acute nonthrombotic myocardial damage has not been reported. The most effective antibiotic treatment of V vulnificus infection includes combination of a third-generation cephalosporin and a tetracycline or its analogue. However, recommendations of a fourth-generation cephalosporinbased regimen for treating the disease are not established. A 67-year-old diabetic man acquired V vulnificus infection via a fish-stunning wound on the right foot. The patients developed septicemia and hemorrhagic bullous necrotic wounds and followed by acute nonthrombotic cardiac injury with low cardiac output. After initial resuscitation, we applied dobutamine inotropic therapy with combination of cefpirome and ciprofloxacin or minocycline, which achieved a good clinical outcome.

Prototheca algaemia: a rare but fatal opportunistic infection among immunocompromised individuals.

Infections due to Prototheca spp. are ubiquitous in nature, occurring in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. The study cohort consisted of 14 cases of Prototheca algaemia reported over the past 5 decades and 2 recent cases from study hospitals. Prototheca wickerhamii was the most common species. The overall mortality rate was 62.5%. Prototheca algaemia, a healthcare-associated infection, was observed in immunocompromised patients and was associated with a poor prognosis.

Bacteremia due to extended-spectrum-ß-lactamase-producing Aeromonas spp. at a medical center in Southern Taiwan.

Although extended-spectrum-ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing aeromonads have been increasingly reported in recent years, most of them were isolates from case reports or environmental isolates. To investigate the prevalence of ESBL producers among Aeromonas blood isolates and the genes encoding ESBLs, consecutive nonduplicate Aeromonas blood isolates collected at a medical center in southern Taiwan from March 2004 to December 2008 were studied. The ESBL phenotypes were examined by clavulanate combination disk test and the cefepime-clavulanate ESBL Etest. The presence of ESBL-encoding genes, including bla(TEM), bla(PER), bla(CTX-M), and bla(SHV) genes, was evaluated by PCR and sequence analysis. The results showed that 4 (2.6%) of 156 Aeromonas blood isolates, 1 Aeromonas hydrophila isolate and 3 Aeromonas caviae isolates, expressed an ESBL-producing phenotype. The ESBL gene in two A. caviae isolates was bla(PER-3), which was located in both chromosomes and plasmids, as demonstrated by Southern hybridization. Of four patients with ESBL-producing Aeromonas bacteremia, two presented with catheter-related phlebitis and the other two with primary bacteremia. Three patients had been treated with initial noncarbapenem ß-lactams for 5 to 10 days, and all survived. In conclusion, ESBL producers exist among Aeromonas blood isolates, and clinical suspicion of ESBL production should be raised in treating infections due to cefotaxime-resistant Aeromonas isolates.

Use of inverse PCR for analysis of class 1 integrons carrying an unusual 3' conserved segment structure.

By using inverse PCR and DNA sequencing, 13 sul3-associated mutational integrons, 2 defective class 1 integrons, and 1 qnrB2-associated complex sul1-type class 1 integrons were identified in Salmonella enterica serovar Choleraesuis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter cloacae, respectively. In addition, conjugation and Southern hybridization demonstrated that unusual class 1 integrons were located on plasmids or integrated into chromosomal DNA. Thus, an inverse PCR assay can be a valuable tool for the analysis of unusual structures of the 3' conserved region of class 1 integrons.

One-tube loop-mediated isothermal amplification combined with restriction endonuclease digestion and ELISA for colorimetric detection of resistance to isoniazid, ethambutol and streptomycin in Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates.

In this study, we designed a simple and rapid colorimetric detection method, a one-tube loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)-PCR-hybridization-restriction endonuclease-ELISA [one-tube LAMP-PCR-HY-RE-ELISA] system, to detect resistance to isoniazid, ethambutol and streptomycin in strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolated from clinical specimens. The clinical performance of this method for detecting isoniazid-resistant, ethambutol-resistant and streptomycin-resistant isolates of M. tuberculosis showed 98.9%, 94.3% and 93.8%, respectively. This assay is rapid and convenient that can be performed within one working day. One-tube LAMP-PCR-HY-RE-ELISA system was designed based on hot spot point mutations in target drug-resistant genes, using LAMP-PCR, hybridization, digestion with restriction endonuclease and colorimetric method of ELISA. In this study, LAMP assay was used to amplify DNA from drug-resistant M. tuberculosis, and ELISA was used for colorimetrical determination. This assay will be a useful tool for rapid diagnosis of mutant codons in strains of M. tuberculosis for isoniazid at katG 315 and katG 463, ethambutol at embB 306 and embB 497, and streptomycin at rpsL 43.

Involvement of the residues of GSKIP, AxinGID, and FRATtide in their binding with GSK3beta to unravel a novel C-terminal scaffold-binding region.

The specificity and regulation of GSK3beta are thought to involve in the docking interactions at core kinase domain because of the particular amino acid residues. Recent X-ray diffraction studies illuminated the relative binding residues on AxinGID and FRATtide for GSK3beta docking and appeared that GSK3beta Val267Gly (V267G) and Tyr288Phe (Y288F) could distinguish the direct interaction between AxinGID and FRATtide. In order to explore the mode that involved the binding of GSKIP to GSK3beta and compare it with that of AxinGID and FRATtide, we pinpointed the binding sites of GSKIP to GSK3beta through the single-point mutation of four corresponding sites within GSK3beta (residues 260-300) as scaffold-binding region I (designated SBR-I(260-300)). Our data showed that these three binding proteins shared similar binding sites on GSK3beta. We also found that the binding of GSK3beta V267G mutant to GSKIP and AxinGID, but not that of Y288F mutant (effect on FRATtide), was affected. Further, based on the simulation data, the electron-density map of GSKIPtide bore closer similarity to the map AxinGID than to that of FRATtide. Interestingly, many C-terminal helix region point-mutants of GSK3beta L359P, F362A, E366K, and L367P were able to eliminate the binding with FRATtide, but not AxinGID or GSKIP. In addition, CABYR exhibited a unique mode in binding to C-terminal helix region of GSK3beta. Taken together, our data revealed that in addition to the core kinase domain, SBR-I(260-300), another novel C-terminus helix region, designated SBR-II(339-383), also appeared to participate in the recognition and specificity of GSK3beta in binding to other specific proteins.

Evaluation of reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification in conjunction with ELISA-hybridization assay for molecular detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Traditional culture, followed by a panel of biochemical tests for the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB), is time-consuming, and rapid identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is crucial for the early administration of appropriate therapy. In this study, the reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification combined with enzyme-linked immunosorbent hybridization (RT-LAMP-ELISA-hybridization) assay has been designed for the rapid detection of 16S rRNA in clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis. This assay reproducibly detected a single copy, as opposed to 2000 copies of MTB 16S rRNA detected by conventional gel electrophoresis. Among the 150 specimens of sputum analysed, RT-LAMP-ELISA-hybridization assay had a sensitivity of 94.1% in the culture method, compared to the Amplified M. tuberculosis Direct Test (AMTD), 91.1% and the 88.2% sensitivity of acid-fast staining. Furthermore, RT-LAMP-ELISA-hybridization assay is more cost-effective when compared to the real-time TaqMan RT-PCR and AMTD assays. In conclusion, our results suggest that the RT-LAMP-ELISA-hybridization assay is a highly sensitive, low cost diagnostic tool useful for the rapid and accurate direct diagnosis of sputum specimens, and is suitable for routine clinical use.