Digit specific denervation does not inhibit mouse digit tip regeneration.

It is long-established that innervation-dependent production of neurotrophic factors is required for blastema formation and epimorphic regeneration of appendages in fish and amphibians. The regenerating mouse digit tip and the human fingertip are mammalian models for epimorphic regeneration, and limb denervation in mice inhibits this response. A complicating issue of limb denervation studies in terrestrial vertebrates is that the experimental models also cause severe paralysis therefore impairing appendage use and diminishing mechanical loading of the denervated tissues. Thus, it is unclear whether the limb denervation impairs regeneration via loss of neurotrophic signaling or loss of mechanical load, or both. Herein, we developed a novel surgical procedure in which individual digits were specifically denervated without impairing ambulation and mechanical loading. We demonstrate that digit specific denervation does not inhibit but attenuates digit tip regeneration, in part due to a delay in wound healing. However, treating denervated digits with a wound dressing that enhances closure results in a partial rescue of the regeneration response. Contrary to the current understanding of mammalian epimorphic regeneration, these studies demonstrate that mouse digit tip regeneration is not peripheral nerve dependent, an observation that should inform continued mammalian regenerative medicine approaches.

Mouse Digit Tip Regeneration Is Mechanical Load Dependent.

Amputation of the mouse digit tip results in blastema-mediated regeneration. In this model, new bone regenerates de novo to lengthen the amputated stump bone, resulting in a functional replacement of the terminal phalangeal element along with associated non-skeletal tissues. Physiological examples of bone repair, such as distraction osteogenesis and fracture repair, are well known to require mechanical loading. However, the role of mechanical loading during mammalian digit tip regeneration is unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that reducing mechanical loading inhibits blastema formation by attenuating bone resorption and wound closure, resulting in the complete inhibition of digit regeneration. Mechanical unloading effects on wound healing and regeneration are completely reversible when mechanical loading is restored. Mechanical unloading after blastema formation results in a reduced rate of de novo bone formation, demonstrating mechanical load dependence of the bone regenerative response. Moreover, enhancing the wound-healing response of mechanically unloaded digits with the cyanoacrylate tissue adhesive Dermabond improves wound closure and partially rescues digit tip regeneration. Taken together, these results demonstrate that mammalian digit tip regeneration is mechanical load-dependent. Given that human fingertip regeneration shares many characteristics with the mouse digit tip, these results identify mechanical load as a previously unappreciated requirement for de novo bone regeneration in humans. © 2021 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Axonal regrowth is impaired during digit tip regeneration in mice.

Mice are intrinsically capable of regenerating the tips of their digits after amputation. Mouse digit tip regeneration is reported to be a peripheral nerve-dependent event. However, it is presently unknown what types of nerves and Schwann cells innervate the digit tip, and to what extent these cells regenerate in association with the regenerative response. Given the necessity of peripheral nerves for mammalian regeneration, we investigated the neuroanatomy of the unamputated, regenerating, and regenerated mouse digit tip. Using immunohistochemistry for ß-III-tubulin (ß3T) or neurofilament H (NFH), substance P (SP), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), myelin protein zero (P0), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), we identified peripheral nerve axons (sensory and sympathetic), and myelinating- and non-myelinating-Schwann cells. Our findings show that the digit tip is innervated by two digital nerves that each bifurcate into a bone marrow (BM) and connective tissue (CT) branch. The BM branches are composed of sympathetic axons that are ensheathed by non-myelinating-Schwann cells whereas the CT branches are composed of sensory and sympathetic axons and are ensheathed by myelinating- and non-myelinating-Schwann cells. The regenerated digit neuroanatomy differs from unamputated digit in several key ways. First, there is 7.5 fold decrease in CT branch axons in the regenerated digit compared to the unampuated digit. Second, there is a 5.6 fold decrease in myelinating-Schwann cells in the regenerated digit compared to the unamputated digit that is consistent with the decrease in CT branch axons. Importantly, we also find that the central portion of the regenerating digit blastema is aneural, with axons and Schwann cells restricted to peripheral and distal blastema regions. Finally, we show that even with impaired innervation, digits maintain the ability to regenerate after re-amputation. Taken together, these data indicate that nerve regeneration is impaired in the context of mouse digit tip regeneration.

Angiogenesis is inhibitory for mammalian digit regeneration.

The regenerating mouse digit tip is a unique model for investigating blastema formation and epimorphic regeneration in mammals. The blastema is characteristically avascular and we previously reported that blastema expression of a known anti-angiogenic factor gene, Pedf, correlated with a successful regenerative response (Yu, L., Han, M., Yan, M., Lee, E. C., Lee, J. & Muneoka, K. (2010). BMP signaling induces digit regeneration in neonatal mice. Development, 137, 551-559). Here we show that during regeneration Vegfa transcripts are not detected in the blastema but are expressed at the onset of differentiation. Treating the amputation wound with vascular endothelial growth factor enhances angiogenesis but inhibits regeneration. We next tested bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP9), another known mediator of angiogenesis, and found that BMP9 is also a potent inhibitor of digit tip regeneration. BMP9 induces Vegfa expression in the digit stump suggesting that regenerative failure is mediated by enhanced angiogenesis. Finally, we show that BMP9 inhibition of regeneration is completely rescued by treatment with pigment epithelium-derived factor. These studies show that precocious angiogenesis is inhibitory for regeneration, and provide compelling evidence that the regulation of angiogenesis is a critical factor in designing therapies aimed at stimulating mammalian regeneration.

Wound healing and blastema formation in regenerating digit tips of adult mice.

Amputation of the distal region of the terminal phalanx of mice causes an initial wound healing response followed by blastema formation and the regeneration of the digit tip. Thus far, most regeneration studies have focused in embryonic or neonatal models and few studies have examined adult digit regeneration. Here we report on studies that include morphological, immunohistological, and volumetric analyses of adult digit regeneration stages. The regenerated digit is grossly similar to the original, but is not a perfect replacement. Re-differentiation of the digit tip occurs by intramembranous ossification forming a trabecular bone network that replaces the amputated cortical bone. The digit blastema is comprised of proliferating cells that express vimentin, a general mesenchymal marker, and by comparison to mature tissues, contains fewer endothelial cells indicative of reduced vascularity. The majority of blastemal cells expressing the stem cell marker SCA-1, also co-express the endothelial marker CD31, suggesting the presence of endothelial progenitor cells. Epidermal closure during wound healing is very slow and is characterized by a failure of the wound epidermis to close across amputated bone. Instead, the wound healing phase is associated with an osteoclast response that degrades the stump bone allowing the wound epidermis to undercut the distal bone resulting in a novel re-amputation response. Thus, the regeneration process initiates from a level that is proximal to the original plane of amputation.

Recovery of network-driven glutamatergic activity in rat hippocampal neurons during chronic glutamate receptor blockade.

Previous studies indicated that a long-term decrease in the activity of ionotropic glutamate receptors induces cholinergic activity in rat and mouse hypothalamic neuronal cultures. Here we studied whether a prolonged inactivation of ionotropic glutamate receptors also induces cholinergic activity in hippocampal neurons. Receptor activity was chronically suppressed in rat hippocampal primary neuronal cultures with two proportionally increasing sets of concentrations of NMDA plus non-NMDA receptor antagonists: 100 microM/10 microM AP5/CNQX (1X cultures) and 200 microM/20 microM AP5/CNQX (2X cultures). Using calcium imaging we demonstrate that cholinergic activity does not develop in these cultures. Instead, network-driven glutamate-dependent activity, that normally is detected in hyper-excitable conditions, reappears in each culture group in the presence of these antagonists and can be reversibly suppressed by higher concentrations of AP5/CNQX. This activity is mediated by non-NMDA receptors and is modulated by NMDA receptors. Further, non-NMDA receptors, the general level of glutamate receptor activity and CaMK-dependent signaling are critical for development of this network-driven glutamatergic activity in the presence of receptor antagonists. Using electrophysiology, western blotting and calcium imaging we show that some neuronal parameters are either reduced or not affected by chronic glutamate receptor blockade. However, other parameters (including neuronal excitability, mEPSC frequency, and expression of GluR1, NR1 and betaCaMKII) become up-regulated and, in some cases, proportionally between the non-treated, 1X and 2X cultures. Our data suggest recovery of the network-driven glutamatergic activity after chronic glutamate receptor blockade. This recovery may represent a form of neuronal plasticity that compensates for the prolonged suppression of the activity of glutamate receptors.

Homeostatic plasticity: comparing and contrasting cortical and hippocampal studies. A review.

Homeostatic plasticity is an important physiological process in the mammalian nervous system. In this review, we discuss methodological and mechanistic similarities and differences in cortical and hippocampal studies of homeostatic plasticity. Although there are many similarities, there are also region-specific differences in the effects and/or mechanisms that regulate homeostatic plasticity in these two regions. In this review, we propose a new experimental paradigm to study homeostatic plasticity that may address some unanswered questions in the field.