ABSTRACT
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can damage cerebral small vessels and cause neurological symptoms. Here we describe structural changes in cerebral small vessels of patients with COVID-19 and elucidate potential mechanisms underlying the vascular pathology. In brains of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected individuals and animal models, we found an increased number of empty basement membrane tubes, so-called string vessels representing remnants of lost capillaries. We obtained evidence that brain endothelial cells are infected and that the main protease of SARS-CoV-2 (Mpro) cleaves NEMO, the essential modulator of nuclear factor-κB. By ablating NEMO, Mpro induces the death of human brain endothelial cells and the occurrence of string vessels in mice. Deletion of receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIPK) 3, a mediator of regulated cell death, blocks the vessel rarefaction and disruption of the blood-brain barrier due to NEMO ablation. Importantly, a pharmacological inhibitor of RIPK signaling prevented the Mpro-induced microvascular pathology. Our data suggest RIPK as a potential therapeutic target to treat the neuropathology of COVID-19.
Subject(s)
Blood-Brain Barrier/metabolism , Brain/metabolism , Coronavirus 3C Proteases/metabolism , Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism , Microvessels/metabolism , SARS-CoV-2/metabolism , Animals , Blood-Brain Barrier/pathology , Brain/pathology , Chlorocebus aethiops , Coronavirus 3C Proteases/genetics , Cricetinae , Female , Humans , Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/genetics , Male , Mesocricetus , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Mice, Transgenic , Microvessels/pathology , SARS-CoV-2/genetics , Vero CellsABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: THBD (thrombomodulin) is part of the anticoagulant protein C-system that acts at the endothelium and is involved in anti-inflammatory and barrier-stabilizing processes. A recombinant soluble form of THBD was shown to have protective effects in different organs, but how the endogenous THBD is regulated during ischemia, particularly in the brain is not known to date. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of THBD, especially in brain endothelial cells, during ischemic stroke. Approach and Results: To induce ischemic brain damage, we occluded the middle cerebral artery of mice. We found an increased endothelial expression of Thbd in the peri-infarct area, whereas in the core of the ischemic tissue Thbd expression was decreased compared with the contralateral side. We generated a novel Cre/loxP-based mouse line that allows for the inducible deletion of Thbd specifically in brain endothelial cells, which worsened stroke outcome 48 hours after middle cerebral artery occlusion. Unexpectedly, we found no signs of increased coagulation, thrombosis, or inflammation in the brain but decreased vessel diameters and impaired angiogenesis in the peri-infarct area that led to a reduced overall vessel length 1 week after stroke induction. CONCLUSIONS: Endogenous THBD acts as a protective factor in the brain during ischemic stroke and enhances vessel diameter and proliferation. These previously unknown properties of THBD could offer new opportunities to affect vessel function after ischemia and thereby improve stroke outcome.
Subject(s)
Brain/blood supply , Endothelial Cells/metabolism , Infarction, Middle Cerebral Artery/metabolism , Neovascularization, Physiologic , Thrombomodulin/metabolism , Animals , Cells, Cultured , Disease Models, Animal , Infarction, Middle Cerebral Artery/physiopathology , Male , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Signal Transduction , Thrombomodulin/deficiencyABSTRACT
Carbon dioxide (CO2), the major product of metabolism, has a strong impact on cerebral blood vessels, a phenomenon known as cerebrovascular reactivity. Several vascular risk factors such as hypertension or diabetes dampen this response, making cerebrovascular reactivity a useful diagnostic marker for incipient vascular pathology, but its functional relevance, if any, is still unclear. Here, we found that GPR4, an endothelial H+ receptor, and endothelial Gαq/11 proteins mediate the CO2/H+ effect on cerebrovascular reactivity in mice. CO2/H+ leads to constriction of vessels in the brainstem area that controls respiration. The consequential washout of CO2, if cerebrovascular reactivity is impaired, reduces respiration. In contrast, CO2 dilates vessels in other brain areas such as the amygdala. Hence, an impaired cerebrovascular reactivity amplifies the CO2 effect on anxiety. Even at atmospheric CO2 concentrations, impaired cerebrovascular reactivity caused longer apneic episodes and more anxiety, indicating that cerebrovascular reactivity is essential for normal brain function. The site-specific reactivity of vessels to CO2 is reflected by regional differences in their gene expression and the release of vasoactive factors from endothelial cells. Our data suggest the central nervous system (CNS) endothelium as a target to treat respiratory and affective disorders associated with vascular diseases.
Subject(s)
Anxiety/metabolism , Cardiovascular System/metabolism , Endothelium/metabolism , Respiration Disorders/metabolism , Amygdala , Animals , Arterioles/pathology , Brain/physiology , Brain Stem/metabolism , Carbon Dioxide/metabolism , Central Nervous System/metabolism , Disease Models, Animal , Endothelium/pathology , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gq-G11/genetics , GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits, Gq-G11/metabolism , Gene Expression , Humans , Hypercapnia/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Mice, Transgenic , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism , Respiration , Risk Factors , Signal TransductionABSTRACT
Inactivating mutations of the NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO), a key component of NF-κB signaling, cause the genetic disease incontinentia pigmenti (IP). This leads to severe neurological symptoms, but the mechanisms underlying brain involvement were unclear. Here, we show that selectively deleting Nemo or the upstream kinase Tak1 in brain endothelial cells resulted in death of endothelial cells, a rarefaction of brain microvessels, cerebral hypoperfusion, a disrupted blood-brain barrier (BBB), and epileptic seizures. TAK1 and NEMO protected the BBB by activating the transcription factor NF-κB and stabilizing the tight junction protein occludin. They also prevented brain endothelial cell death in a NF-κB-independent manner by reducing oxidative damage. Our data identify crucial functions of inflammatory TAK1-NEMO signaling in protecting the brain endothelium and maintaining normal brain function, thus explaining the neurological symptoms associated with IP.
