Inciting events initiating injection-proven sacroiliac joint syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the inciting events leading to the development of sacroiliac joint syndrome (SIJS). METHODS: This was a retrospective descriptive cohort series from an academic interdisciplinary spine center. Consecutive patients presenting with low back or buttock pain with or without leg symptoms who met specific inclusion and exclusion criteria for the diagnosis of SIJS were included in the study. Inciting events leading to the development of SIJS in these patients were categorized into traumatic, cumulative, and idiopathic events. RESULTS: Of 194 patients who were included in the study, 54 patients had symptom resolution with one or more therapeutic intraarticular sacroiliac joint injections, following a positive diagnostic injection. Those patients were given the diagnosis of SIJS. Of these, 24 (44%) had had a traumatic event (13 motor vehicle accidents, six falls onto the buttock, three immediately postpartum, one severe football tackle, and one pelvis fracture). Eleven (21%) patients were considered to have a cumulative injury (four lifting, two running, three altered gait due to lower extremity disorder, one crew training injury, and one forceful hip extension injury). Nineteen (35%) patients had spontaneous or idiopathic onset of sacroiliac joint pain. CONCLUSION: SIJS can occur following a traumatic event or cumulative shear events, or can occur spontaneously.

A critical review of the evidence for the use of zygapophysial injections and radiofrequency denervation in the treatment of low back pain.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: Lumbar zygapophysial joints are currently believed to be a cause of axial low back pain. Once this diagnosis is made, decisions about when to institute a particular intervention and which treatment to offer is regionally and specialty dependent. PURPOSE: To perform a critical review of prior published studies assessing the use of interventional treatment options for the treatment of lumbar zygapophysial joint syndrome. STUDY DESIGN: Evidence-based medicine analysis of current literature. METHODS: A database search of Medline (PubMed, Ovid and MDConsult), Embase and the Cochrane database was conducted. The keywords used were low back pain, lumbar zygapophysial joint, lumbar facet joint, radiofrequency denervation, medial branch block, and intraarticular injection. After identifying all relevant literature, each article was reviewed. Data from the following categories were compiled: inclusion criteria, randomization of subjects, total number of subjects involved at enrollment and at final analysis. statistical analysis used, intervention performed, outcome measures, follow-up intervals and results. Guidelines described by the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research were then applied to these data. RESULTS: This review determined that the evidence for the treatment of lumbar zygapophysial joint syndrome with intraarticular injections should be rated as level III (moderate) to IV (limited) evidence, whereas that for radiofrequency denervation is at a level III. CONCLUSIONS: Current studies fail to give more than sparse evidence to support the use of interventional techniques in the treatment of lumbar zygapophysial joint-mediated low back pain. This review emphasizes the need for larger, prospective, randomized controlled trials with uniform inclusion and exclusion criteria, standardized treatment, uniform outcome measures and an adequate duration of follow-up period so that definitive recommendations for the treatment of lumbar zygapophysial joint-mediated pain can be made.

Abdominal pain secondary to a sacral perineural cyst.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: Perineural cysts are commonly found in the sacral region and are incidently discovered on imaging studies performed for the evaluation of low back and/or leg pain. PURPOSE: To report on a patient presenting with abdominal pain secondary to a large sacral perineural cyst. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: Case report. METHODS/PATIENT SAMPLE: A 47-year-old woman was referred to a specialized multidisciplinary spine center with complaints of left lower quadrant abdominal pain and left leg pain. Of significant note was the presence of constipation and urinary frequency over the preceding 8 months. Physical examination was normal. Magnetic resonance imaging of the lumbosacral spine revealed large perineural cysts eroding the sacrum and extending to the pelvis. The presence of abdominal symptoms prompted a neurosurgical consultation. However, after considering the possible risks associated with the surgical procedure, the patient opted to follow the nonsurgical route. RESULT AND CONCLUSIONS: Although commonly visualized, sacral perineural cysts are rarely symptomatic. When symptomatic, it may be secondary to its size and location. Presence of abdominal pain in a patient with back and/or leg pain should prompt the evaluation of the lumbosacral spine.

Sacral stress fracture in a female field hockey player.

We report a collegiate field hockey player who sustained a sacral fatigue-type stress fracture that manifested as persistent low back and leg pain. The diagnosis of sacral stress fracture was suggested by history and physical examination and confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging. Our patient experienced complete resolution of symptoms after a 3-mo interval of activity restriction. This article describes the first reported case of a sacral stress fracture in a field hockey player.

Randomized controlled trials in interventional spine: perils and pitfalls.

It is the responsibility of clinician investigators to advance clinical knowledge and specifically its application to patient care. Randomized controlled trials remain near the top of the hierarchy of evidence based medicine. The acquisition of evidence based medicine by means of randomized controlled trials presents general difficulties and additional pitfalls specific to interventional treatments. The nature of interventional procedures makes the performance of these studies more difficult to plan and execute. To generate clinically useful research results requires an understanding of the mechanics of performing studies and the reporting of methodologies to ensure appropriate interpretation. Placebo arms and sham interventions present serious ethical issues, which must be analyzed on a case by case basis. The conscientious researcher must always abide by the principles of ethical research and the tenets of human subject protection.

Dysphonia associated with epidural steroid injection: a case report.

A 46-year-old patient with left-side low back pain developed symptoms of dysphonia and throat irritation 24 hours after receiving a fluoroscopically guided steroid injection into the epidural space. A direct laryngoscopy performed before a second injection detected no abnormalities. When dysphonia reappeared 48 hours after that injection, laryngoscopy revealed edema in the anterior vocal cord with thick surrounding mucous. Full clinical resolution of the dysphonia was apparent by laryngoscopy 15 days after the second injection. The mechanism of dysphonia after epidural steroid injection is unknown, but it may result from a systemic steroid effect.

Etiologies of failed back surgery syndrome.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. OBJECTIVE: To report the epidemiologic data of nonsurgical and surgical etiologies of failed back surgery syndrome (FBSS) from two outpatient spine practices. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: FBSS has been offered as a diagnosis, but this is an imprecise term encompassing a heterogeneous group of disorders that have in common pain symptoms after lumbar surgery. The current literature primarily diagnoses for the various etiologies of FBSS from a surgical perspective. To our knowledge, there is no study that investigates the myriad of surgical and nonsurgical diagnoses from a nonsurgical perspective. METHODS: Specific inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed for a list of 42 nonsurgical and surgical differential diagnoses of FBSS. The determination of which category, surgical or nonsurgical, each diagnosis was placed into depended upon the categorization of those diagnoses in previously published literature on FBSS. Each of the authors reviewed the definitions, and they came to a unanimous agreement on each diagnosis' inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data extraction was then carried out in each of the two involved institutions by using the key words discectomy, laminectomy, and fusion to identify all the patients who had any combination of low back, buttock, or lower extremity pain after lumbar discectomy surgery. These charts were then individually reviewed to extract epidemiologic data. RESULTS: A total of 267 charts were reviewed. One hundred and ninety-seven (197) charts had a complete workup. Of these, 11 (5.6%) had an unknown etiology, and 186 had a known diagnosis. Twenty-three (23) various diagnoses were identified. There was approximately an equal distribution between the incidences of nonsurgical and surgical diagnoses; 44.4% had nonsurgical diagnoses and 55.6% had surgical diagnoses. The most common diagnoses identified were spinal stenosis, internal disc disruption syndrome, recurrent/retained disc, and neural fibrosis. CONCLUSION: FBSS is a syndrome consisting of a myriad of surgical and nonsurgical etiologies. Approximately one half of FBSS patients have a surgical etiology. Approximately 95% of patients can be provided a specific diagnosis.

MR lumbar discography with intradiscal gadolinium in patients with severe anaphylactoid reaction to iodinated contrast material.

OBJECTIVE: Describe our experience using discography with intradiscal gadolinium and MR lumbar discography in patients with a history of severe anaphylactoid reaction to iodinated radiocontrast agents. DESIGN: Observational study of 14 patients. METHODS: From 1997 to 1999, 14 patients were referred for lumbar discography with intradiscal gadolinium followed by MRI. Patients with a history of a severe anaphylactoid reaction to iodinated radiocontrast media or those who refused the use of iodinated contrast material were included in the study. RESULTS: In fourteen patients, 58 discs were studied. The post discography MRIs identified seven annular tears and seven annular fissures. None of the fourteen patients reported symptoms suggestive of allergic reaction either during or after discography. CONCLUSIONS: Discography using intradiscal administration of gadolinium followed by MRI provides a method of obtaining a clinically pertinent study in a subset of patients who likely would not be offered the procedure, secondary to severe anaphylactoid reactions to iodinated contrast materials.

Interventional spine research: the evolution of informed consent.

The future success of the field of interventional pain medicine depends on proof of positive outcomes. Evidence based medicine has an increasing relationship to insurance reimbursement. This makes new modes of pain management dependent upon human subject research. To succeed physicians must fulfill the ethical and regulatory requirements of research, specifically informed consent. History makes clear the importance of these ethical principles. Reliance on the beneficence and ethics of investigators has failed to protect subjects. This has led to ethical codes and governmental intervention. The basis of human research regulation is the Nuremberg Code and its underlying ethical principles. This code elucidates the requirements of Understanding and Voluntariness in informed consent for research. An analysis of these principles helps researchers fulfill the spirit of the governmental regulations and highlights the importance of protecting individual's rights. The current system of federal oversight of human research is cumbersome and inadequate. It leaves large groups of subjects unprotected and its lumbering pace often impedes investigators progress in spite of their compliance with ethical principles. Reform of these systems, is long overdue and physicians must play a role if we are to have efficient ethical human subject research in the future.

Clinical evidence of chemical radiculopathy.

It is universally accepted that an anatomic abnormality such as a herniated disc or spinal stenosis can lead to radicular leg pain. There is some controversy as to whether radicular pain can be caused by a non-structural, solely biochemical disorder. Prior studies using biochemical analysis of inflammatory mediators of the disc or surrounding structures have enumerated many possible biochemical mediators of radicular pain. However, such studies have not definitively demonstrated whether these inflammatory mediators are the causes of radicular pain or whether these mediators are simply products of the degenerative cascade. The purpose of this paper is to report upon patients who satisfy strict criteria affirming a diagnosis of radiculopathy in the presence of normal imaging studies. The study was designed as a prospective case series of patients fulfilling inclusion and exclusion criteria at a university hospital outpatient physiatric spine practice. Inclusion criteria consisted of symptoms of extremity pain greater than axial pain, examination findings demonstrating a new myotomal deficit that correlates with the root level predicted by the dermatomal pain distribution, and failure to improve after at least 4 weeks of active physical therapy. Magnetic resonance imaging void of local nerve root pathology as per review by the first author and the interpreting radiologist was required. Each patient had to have a positive electromyographic study for an acute radiculopathy. Each patient had to have a positive fluoroscopically guided diagnostic selective nerve root block. In summary, this paper provides clinical evidence that anatomic abnormalities are not required to cause radiculopathy, thus implying that a biochemical etiology is likely to play a significant role in radiculopathy and radicular pain.

Vascular supply to the lumbar spine: an intimate look at the lumbosacral nerve roots.

The vascular supply of the lumbar vertebral column is a diverse collection of arteries originating from both central and peripheral sites. Until recently, the majority of these studies have been dedicated to the blood supply of the spinal cord and vertebral bodies. More recent effort has been directed toward the identification of the vascular supply to the lumbar nerve roots. These studies have conclusively documented the presence of a dual blood supply to the nerve roots. In addition, this dual vascular supply has been discovered to have the capability for bi-directional flow. This unique property may allow for prevention of localized, compressive ischemic symptoms secondary to either herniated disc material or osteophytes. The nutrient contributions of the cerebrospinal fluid and venous supply to nerve roots have also been investigated. Early studies indicate that they may play a greater role than suspected. The presence of multiple sources of nutrient supply to the lumbar nerve roots enables them to be resistant to the potential compressive phenomenon that may occur in the lumbar spine.

The evolution of informed consent: failures of the current system of human protection.

The reliance of subjects and researchers on the current regulatory scheme for human subject protection is misplaced. Investigators often assume that compliance with the requirements of the Common Rule, including Institutional Review Board approval of their research project, adequately fulfills the spirit of the federal regulation and protects them from liability for lack of adequate informed consent. Subjects and physicians referring subjects, believe that institutional approval of studies assures that they are scientifically valid and ethical. Unfortunately the current scheme of human research protection has failed to fulfill the spirit of the Nuremberg Code and The Belmont Report. Not only are large numbers of studies left out of the current protection scheme but the scheme is also flawed on several levels. This leaves researchers at risk for liability and subjects may have their right to autonomy violated even while the requirements of the current regulatory scheme are satisfied. It is time for a wholesale restructuring of human subject protection. If physician researchers ignore the deficits of the current system we will lose control and input into the formulation of the new scheme.

Cervicogenic headache.

Chronic headache is a significant medical and socioeconomic problem resulting in severe disability and impairment. The term "cervicogenic headache" was coined by Sjaastad in 1983, who also proposed criteria for its diagnosis. Cervicogenic headache as described by Sjaastad et al is characterized as recurrent, long lasting, severe unilateral headache arising from the neck. Exact pathoanatomic and pathophysiologic basis for cervicogenic headache is unclear. Numerous authors have proposed various theories ranging from neurophysiologic basis involving ascending fibers from the C1 and C2 nerve roots to multiple pain generators in pain-sensitive structures involved in head movement. Thus, cervicogenic headache should be considered as a descriptive term rather than a final diagnosis. Because of the numerous potential pain generators, neither uniform clinical findings, nor a pathophysiology has been defined for the entity known as cervicogenic headache. Sequential diagnostic injections may elucidate pain generators and differentiate it from other types of headaches. This review describes the epidemiological and clinical aspects of cervicogenic headache, pathophysiology, diagnostic strategies to differentiate it from other common headaches and describes various non-operative treatment strategies.

Painless foot drop: an atypical etiology of a common presentation.

Weakness of the dorsiflexor muscles of the foot is a relatively common presentation. In most cases, the etiology involves a peripheral injury to the common peroneal nerve. These patients usually present with lower motor neuron findings on evaluation. In contrast, if upper motor neuron findings were present a central lesion should be suspected and appropriate imaging studies are performed. We describe a patient with painless foot drop and lower motor findings on examination that was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. This case demonstrates that multiple sclerosis can masquerade as a peripheral process in some patients.