X-inactivation: Xist RNA uses chromosome contacts to coat the X.

The mechanisms by which Xist RNA associates with the X chromosome to mediate alterations in chromatin structure remain mysterious. Recent genome-wide Xist RNA distribution studies suggest that this long noncoding RNA uses 3-dimensional chromosome contacts to move to its sites of action.

MeCP2 is required for global heterochromatic and nucleolar changes during activity-dependent neuronal maturation.

Mutations in MECP2, encoding methyl CpG binding protein 2, cause the neurodevelopmental disorder Rett syndrome. MeCP2 is an abundant nuclear protein that binds to chromatin and modulates transcription in response to neuronal activity. Prior studies of MeCP2 function have focused on specific gene targets of MeCP2, but a more global role for MeCP2 in neuronal nuclear maturation has remained unexplored. MeCP2 levels increase during postnatal brain development, coinciding with dynamic changes in neuronal chromatin architecture, particularly detectable as changes in size, number, and location of nucleoli and perinucleolar heterochromatic chromocenters. To determine a potential role for MeCP2 in neuronal chromatin maturational changes, we measured nucleoli and chromocenters in developing wild-type and Mecp2-deficient mouse cortical sections, as well as mouse primary cortical neurons and a human neuronal cell line following induced maturation. Mecp2-deficient mouse neurons exhibited significant differences in nucleolar and chromocenter number and size, as more abundant, smaller nucleoli in brain and primary neurons compared to wild-type, consistent with delayed neuronal nuclear maturation in the absence of MeCP2. Primary neurons increased chromocenter size following depolarization in wild-type, but not Mecp2-deficient cultures. Wild-type MECP2e1 over-expression in human SH-SY5Y cells was sufficient to induce significantly larger nucleoli, but not a T158M mutation of the methyl-binding domain. These results suggest that, in addition to the established role of MeCP2 in transcriptional regulation of specific target genes, the global chromatin-binding function of MeCP2 is essential for activity-dependent global chromatin dynamics during postnatal neuronal maturation.

Neuronal chromatin dynamics of imprinting in development and disease.

Epigenetic mechanisms play essential roles in mammalian neurodevelopment and genetic mutations or chromosomal deletions or duplications of epigenetically regulated loci or pathways result in several important human neurodevelopmental disorders. Postnatal mammalian neurons have among the most structured and dynamic nuclear organization of any cell type. Human chromosome 15q11-13 is an imprinted locus required for normal neurodevelopment and is regulated by a plethora of epigenetic mechanisms in neurons, including multiple noncoding RNAs, parentally imprinted transcription and histone modifications, large-scale chromatin decondensation, and homologous pairing in mature neurons of the mammalian brain. Here, we describe the multiple epigenetic layers regulating 15q11-13 gene expression and chromatin dynamics in neurons and propose a model of how noncoding RNAs may influence the unusual neuronal chromatin structure and dynamics at this locus. We also discuss the need for improved neuronal cell culture systems that model human 15q11-13 and other neurodevelopmental disorders with epigenetic bases in order to test the mechanisms of chromatin dynamics and nuclear organization in neurons. Induced pluripotent stem cells and other stem cell technologies hold promise for improved understanding of and therapeutic interventions for multiple human neurodevelopmental disorders.

Bladder wall transplantation--long-term survival of cells: implications for bioengineering and clinical application.

Current bioengineered bladder wall substitutes include acellular scaffolds and grafts seeded with autologous cells. The transplanted cells on a seeded graft may regenerate and/or be replaced by cells of the patient's bladder. This may or may not be advantageous depending upon the underlying pathology. A theoretically perfect bioengineered graft would be intact bladder wall. To determine if such a graft is feasible and to study the cellular changes, we transplanted full-thickness bladder grafts from male inbred rats onto bladders of female syngeneic rats. Bladders were harvested at 1, 3, 6, 12, and 16 months after surgery and evaluated for histologic changes. Cell origin (male donor vs. female host) was determined with fluorescent in situ hybridization with unique probes for rat X and Y chromosomes. Urothelial hyperplasia, inflammation, and increased stromal thickness subsided down to control values by 6 months after surgery. At 16 months, graft muscle demonstrated persistence of male cells. On the other hand, graft urothelium was partially replaced by female host cells with a pattern suggestive of a hematogenous route rather than ingrowth from the host bladder. Bladder wall transplantation is feasible. The slow replacement of the transplanted urothelium and persistence of muscle may imply the same fate for engineered grafts.

Imprinting regulates mammalian snoRNA-encoding chromatin decondensation and neuronal nucleolar size.

Imprinting, non-coding RNA and chromatin organization are modes of epigenetic regulation that modulate gene expression and are necessary for mammalian neurodevelopment. The only two known mammalian clusters of genes encoding small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), SNRPN through UBE3A(15q11-q13/7qC) and GTL2(14q32.2/12qF1), are neuronally expressed, localized to imprinted loci and involved in at least five neurodevelopmental disorders. Deficiency of the paternal 15q11-q13 snoRNA HBII-85 locus is necessary to cause the neurodevelopmental disorder Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS). Here we show epigenetically regulated chromatin decondensation at snoRNA clusters in human and mouse brain. An 8-fold allele-specific decondensation of snoRNA chromatin was developmentally regulated specifically in maturing neurons, correlating with HBII-85 nucleolar accumulation and increased nucleolar size. Reciprocal mouse models revealed a genetic and epigenetic requirement of the 35 kb imprinting center (IC) at the Snrpn-Ube3a locus for transcriptionally regulated chromatin decondensation. PWS human brain and IC deletion mouse Purkinje neurons showed significantly decreased nucleolar size, demonstrating the essential role of the 15q11-q13 HBII-85 locus in neuronal nucleolar maturation. These results are relevant to understanding the molecular pathogenesis of multiple human neurodevelopmental disorders, including PWS and some causes of autism.