Citizen science as a tool for enhancing recreation research in protected areas: Applications and opportunities.

As the popularity of nature-based recreation and tourism grows, protected area (PA) managers around the world are faced with escalating monitoring and management challenges across spatial and temporal scales. Citizen science, an emerging research approach which involves active public participation and collaboration with scientists in the scientific process, is an innovative tool that could help managers address these challenges. This study applied the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review Recommendations (PRISMA) protocol to review published studies that utilized citizen science methods in recreation research, examining the extent and nature of such applications and identifying future opportunities. We identified 20 peer-reviewed journal articles from the Web of Science, most of which were published since 2015. These studies utilized different citizen science approaches to examine recreation patterns, behaviors, and impacts in terrestrial and marine PAs. We found that citizen science was used most often in marine PAs, with specialized recreationists (e.g., SCUBA divers) as the most frequent contributors. The types of volunteers recruited differed by their sources (i.e., general public, recreation specialists, and organizational affiliates) and roles (i.e., volunteers as agents of data collection and volunteers as research subjects), with innovative technology (e.g., participatory GIS) creating new engagement opportunities. Despite these benefits, the accuracy and reliability of citizen science data remain important considerations for managers. Our review demonstrates how citizen science can inform management and enhance public participation in PA stewardship activities, and it reveals the need for more research to explore applications of citizen science in different recreation contexts.

Managing congestion at visitor hotspots using park-level use level data: Case study of a Chinese World Heritage Site.

Tourist congestion at hot spots has been a major management concern for UNESCO World Heritage Sites and other iconic protected areas. A growing number of heritage sites employ technologies, such as cameras and electronic ticket-checking systems, to monitor user levels, but data collected by these monitoring technologies are often under-utilized. In this study, we illustrated how to integrate data from hot spots by camera-captured monitoring and entrance counts to manage use levels at a World Heritage Site in Southeastern China. 6,930 photos of a congestion hotspot (scenic outlook on a trail) were collected within the park at a 10-minute interval over 105 days from January to November 2017. The entrance counts were used to predict daily average and maximum use level at the hotspots. Results showed that the average use level at the congestion hotspot did not exceed the use limit mandated by the park administration agency. However, from 9:20 am to 12:00 pm, the use level at hotspots exceeded visitor preferred use level. Visitor use level was significantly higher at the hotspot during a major Chinese "Golden Week". The daily entrance counts significantly predicted the average and maximum use level at the hotspot. Based on our findings, park managers can achieve the management goals by permitting the corresponding number of visitors passing the entrances. The gap manifested the complexities in visitor capacity management at high-use World Heritage Sites and other protected areas and calls for innovative monitoring and management strategies.

Attendance trends threaten future operations of America's state park systems.

This research examines how the operating expenditures of America's state park systems will be affected by a continued growth in attendance consistent with observed trends as well as potential climate futures. We construct a longitudinal panel dataset (1984-2017) describing the operations and characteristics of all 50 state park systems. These data are analyzed with a time-varying stochastic frontier model. Estimates from the model are used to forecast operating expenditures to midcentury under four different scenarios. The first scenario assumes annual attendance within each state park system will continue to grow (or decline) at the same average annual rate that it has over the period of observation. The subsequent scenarios assume statewide annual mean temperatures will increase following the RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 greenhouse gas emissions trajectories. Operating expenditures under a scenario where annual growth in attendance stays consistent with observed trends are forecasted to increase 756% by midcentury; this is an order of magnitude larger than projected expenditures under any of the climate scenarios. The future climate change scenarios yielded increases in operating expenditures between 25% (RCP2.6) and 61% (RCP8.5) by 2050. Attendance is the single largest factor affecting the operations of America's state park systems, dwarfing the influence of climate change, which is significant and nontrivial. The future of America's state park systems will depend upon increased support from state legislatures, as well as management actions that generate funds for the maintenance of existing infrastructure and facilities, and the provisioning of services.

Using crowd-sourced photos to assess seasonal patterns of visitor use in mountain-protected areas.

Managing protected areas effectively requires information about patterns of visitor use, but these data are often limited. We explore how geotagged photos on Flickr, a popular photo-sharing social-media site, can generate hotspot maps and distribution models of temporal and spatial patterns of use in two mountain-protected areas of high conservation value. In Aconcagua Provincial Park (Argentina), two routes to the summit of Aconcagua were used in summer, but most visitors stayed close to the main road, using formal and informal walking trails and the Visitor Centre, while in winter, there was very limited visitation. In Kosciuszko National Park (Australia), alpine walking trails were popular in summer, but in winter, most visitors stayed in the lower altitude ski resorts and ski trails. Results demonstrate the usefulness of social-media data alone as well as a complement for visitor monitoring, providing spatial and temporal information for site-specific and park-level management of visitors and potential impacts in conservation areas.

Relationships between Characteristics of Urban Green Land Cover and Mental Health in U.S. Metropolitan Areas.

Urbanization increases risk for depression and other mental disorders. A growing body of research indicates the natural environment confers numerous psychological benefits including alleviation of mental distress. This study examined land cover types and landscape metrics in relation to mental health for 276 U.S. counties within metropolitan areas having a population of 1 million or more. County Health Rankings and Behavioral Risk and Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) provided a measure of mental health. The 2011 National Land Cover Database (NLCD) provided data on green land cover types, from which seven landscape metrics were generated to characterize landscape patterns. Spearman's rho correlation and stepwise logistic regression models, respectively, were employed to examine bivariate and multivariate relationships. Models were adjusted for county population and housing density, region, race, and income to account for potential confounding. Overall, individual measures of landscape patterns showed stronger associations with mental health than percent total cover alone. Greater edge contrast was associated with 3.81% lower odds of Frequent Mental Distress (FMD) (Adjusted Odd's Ratio (AOR) = 0.9619, 95% CI = 0.9371, 0.9860). Shrubland cohesion was associated with greater odds of FMD (AOR = 1.0751, 95% CI = 1.0196, 1.1379). In addition, distance between shrubland cover was associated with greater odds of FMD (AOR = 1.0027, 95% CI = 1.0016, 1.0041). Although effect sizes were small, findings suggest different types of landscape characteristics may have different roles in improving mental health.

Integrating direct observation and GPS tracking to monitor animal behavior for resource management.

Monitoring the behavior of pack animals in protected areas informs management about use patterns and the potential associated negative impacts. However, systematic assessments of behavior are uncommon due to methodological and logistical constraints. This study integrated behavior mapping with GPS tracking, and applied behavior change point analysis, as an approach to monitor the behaviors of pack animals during overnight periods. The integrated approach identified multiple grazing patterns (i.e., locally intense grazing, ambulatory grazing) not feasible through a single methodology alone. Monitoring behavior and corresponding environmental conditions aid managers in implementing strategies designed to mitigate impacts associated with pack animals in natural areas. Results also contrast the influence of temporal scale on behavior segmentation to inform decisions for further monitoring and management of domestic animal use and impacts in natural areas. This integrated approach reduced time and logistical constraints of each method individually to promote ongoing monitoring and highlight how multiple management tactics could reduce impacts to sensitive habitats.

The efficacy of combined educational and site management actions in reducing off-trail hiking in an urban-proximate protected area.

Park and protected area managers are tasked with protecting natural environments, a particularly daunting challenge in heavily visited urban-proximate areas where flora and fauna are already stressed by external threats. In this study, an adaptive management approach was taken to reduce extensive off-trail hiking along a popular trail through an ecologically diverse and significant area in the Chesapeake and Ohio National Historical Park near Washington DC. Substantial amounts of off-trail hiking there had created an extensive 16.1 km network of informal (visitor-created) trails on a 39 ha island in the Potomac Gorge. A research design with additive treatments integrating educational and site management actions was applied and evaluated using self-reported behavior from an on-site visitor survey and unobtrusive observations of off-trail hiking behavior at two locations along the trail. Study treatments included: 1) trailhead educational signs developed using attribution theory and injunctive-proscriptive wording, 2) symbolic "no hiking" prompter signs attached to logs placed across all informal trails, 3) placement of concealing leaf litter and small branches along initial sections of informal trails, 4) restoration work on selected trails with low fencing, and 5) contact with a trail steward to personally communicate the trailhead sign information. The final, most comprehensive treatment reduced visitor-reported intentional off-trail hiking from 70.3% to 43.0%. Direct observations documented reduction in off-trail hiking from 25.9% to 2.0%. The educational message and site management actions both contributed to the decline in off-trail travel and the two evaluation methods enhanced our ability to describe the efficacy of the different treatments in reducing off-trail travel.

Environmental and managerial factors associated with pack stock distribution in high elevation meadows: Case study from Yosemite National Park.

Parks and protected areas are integral strategies for biological diversity conservation, and their management often involves balancing visitor use with resource protection. Effectively balancing these objectives requires data about how use is distributed within areas of interest and how management strategies and environmental conditions interact to minimize negative impacts. This study examined which environmental and managerial factors most influenced the distribution of domestic pack stock animals, a common visitor use-related activity, when released to graze in high elevation meadows. Using a species distribution modelling approach, MaxEnt, managerial factors were found to be among the top contributors to models. Pack stock animals concentrated use near the locations where they were released as well as portable enclosure fencing confining the lead animal even though the remainder were allowed to roam freely. Elevation was the environmental factor contributing most, with animals remaining at similar elevations to the meadow even if moving into nearby understory. Results highlight the importance of release point and fence locations to overall pack stock animal distribution and rotational or strategic placement can be a tactic for mitigating impacts to sensitive habitats.

Urban Vegetative Cover Fragmentation in the U.S.: Associations With Physical Activity and BMI.

INTRODUCTION: Urban vegetative cover provides a range of ecosystem services including contributions to human health and well-being. Urbanization exerts tremendous pressure on this natural resource, causing fragmentation and loss of urban greenspace. This study aimed to examine associations between vegetative cover fragmentation and physical activity and BMI at the county scale in the U.S. metropolitan statistical areas greater than 1 million in population. METHODS: National Land Cover Database 2006 and Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System 2008 provided land cover and human health data, respectively. Analyses were performed in 2013 at the county scale where the health data were reported. Spearman rank correlation and stepwise and hierarchical regression models were applied to estimate relationships between land cover and health variables. RESULTS: After controlling for median household income and race, greater forest edge density (ß=0.272, p<0.05) and larger size of herbaceous patches (ß=0.261, p<0.01) were associated with a higher percentage of participation in physical activity within counties. More connections between forest and developed area (ß=0.37, p<0.01) and greater edge density of shrubland (ß=0.646, p<0.001) were positively associated with a higher percentage of normal BMI (<25) within counties. CONCLUSIONS: Forest land cover and some degree of fragmentation are associated with population physical activity. Future studies should examine how built environments and varying land cover configurations influence physical activity and weight status.

Determinants of Responsible Hiking Behavior: Results from a Stated Choice Experiment.

This research examined the determinants of responsible hiking behavior through a lab-based experiment in which two managerial factors believed to influence individuals' behavior (the presentation of an educational message and the method of displaying degraded trail conditions) were varied across four experimental treatments in a 2 × 2 between subjects factorial design. The effect of trail degradation type (muddiness and erosion) and severity (moderate or severe) of trail degradation were also examined within each of the 4 treatment groups. Analyses revealed neither the educational message nor the method of displaying the image had a consistent and expected impact on individuals' behavioral intentions. In fact, participants who viewed the educational message were more likely to indicate they would hike off the trail. The effects of both trail degradation type and severity were consistent and significant with muddiness and more severe levels of degradation having a greater influence on individuals' intent to hike on the edge of or off the trail. The analyses also revealed both gender and hiking frequency had significant effects on behavioral intentions. Female participants were more likely to indicate they would turn around than males when they encountered degraded trail sections. Women were also less likely to indicate they would hike off the trail than men. Collectively, these findings highlight a variety of ways recreation resource managers can more efficiently inform recreationists about the impacts of off-trail hiking and prioritize trail management needs.

Incorporating physical activity measures into environmental monitoring of national parks: an example from Yosemite.

BACKGROUND: To address increasing prevalence of obesity and associated chronic disease, recent national initiatives have called upon federal agencies to promote healthy lifestyles and provide opportunities for physical activity. In response, the U.S. National Park Service has developed strategies promoting health through physical activity in addition to its well-established biodiversity and landscape conservation mission. Incorporating physical activity measures with routine environmental monitoring would help identify areas where parks can promote active pursuits with minimal environmental impact. This study provides one example of how protocols developed for visitor and environmental monitoring can generate data to evaluate physical activity. METHODS: Researchers implemented an observational study in high-use meadows of Yosemite National Park during the summer of 2011. Variables measured include the spatial location of visitors and activity type. Metabolic equivalents (METs) were assigned to activity categories and analyzed for average energy expenditure. RESULTS: Mean METs values indicated sedentary to light physical activity across the meadows, with greater means in areas with boardwalks or paved pathways. CONCLUSIONS: Data leveraged in this study provide park managers an example of adapting existing monitoring programs to incorporate indicators relevant to physical activity evaluation and how physical activity may impact resource conditions in national parks.

Spatially characterizing visitor use and its association with informal trails in Yosemite Valley meadows.

Ecological impacts associated with nature-based recreation and tourism can compromise park and protected area goals if left unrestricted. Protected area agencies are increasingly incorporating indicator-based management frameworks into their management plans to address visitor impacts. Development of indicators requires empirical evaluation of indicator measures and examining their ecological and social relevance. This study addresses the development of the informal trail indicator in Yosemite National Park by spatially characterizing visitor use in open landscapes and integrating use patterns with informal trail condition data to examine their spatial association. Informal trail and visitor use data were collected concurrently during July and August of 2011 in three, high-use meadows of Yosemite Valley. Visitor use was clustered at statistically significant levels in all three study meadows. Spatial data integration found no statistically significant differences between use patterns and trail condition class. However, statistically significant differences were found between the distance visitors were observed from informal trails and visitor activity type with active activities occurring closer to trail corridors. Gender was also found to be significant with male visitors observed further from trail corridors. Results highlight the utility of integrated spatial analysis in supporting indicator-based monitoring and informing management of open landscapes. Additional variables for future analysis and methodological improvements are discussed.

A nationwide production analysis of state park attendance in the United States.

This study examined the production of U.S. states' park visits from 1984 to 2010 by state. In specifying the production equation in terms of the influences of the states' parklands, labor, and capital investments on the annual attendances, we found that state governments will experience an ongoing need for more labor to maintain their parklands if attendance is to increase in the future. Results also indicated that more capital expenditures are not likely to increase park utilization rates. Post-estimation procedures involved the application of the response residuals to identify the capacity utilization rates of the states' park systems over the past 27 years. Past utilization rates revealed operators met or exceeded capacity utilization expectations from 1984 through 1990. However, beginning in 1991, the annual mean utilization rate for the nation's supply of states' parks signaled a trend toward excess capacity. Our forecast revealed the mean utilizations over the next three years will vary between 90% and 95%. Post-estimation procedures also examined the relationship between state park management orientations (towards either public-lands preservation or recreational development) and projected annual capacity utilization rates. Results indicate that the quantity of added facilities to broaden their appeal to the public (i.e., a recreation orientation) was not important in explaining utilization capacities. However, an orientation toward public-lands preservation related significantly to greater utilization rates. In our view, the public will continue to accept current cost structures for continued operations of the states' parks on the compelling need for access to outdoor recreation to contribute to the visitor well-being.

Developing a monitoring protocol for visitor-created informal trails in Yosemite National Park, USA.

Informal trails created or perpetuated by visitors is a management challenge in many protected natural areas such as Yosemite National Park. This is a significant issue as informal trail networks penetrate and proliferate into protected landscapes and habitats, threatening ecological integrity, aesthetics, and visitor experiences. In order to develop effective strategies for addressing this problem under an adaptive management framework, indicators must be developed and monitoring protocol must be established to gather timely and relevant data about the condition, extent, and distribution of these undesired trail segments. This article illustrates a process of developing and evaluating informal trail indicators for meadows in Yosemite Valley. Indicator measures developed in past research were reviewed to identify their appropriateness for the current application. Information gaps in existing indicator measures were addressed by creating two new indices to quantify the degree of informal trailing based on its land fragmentation effects. The selected indicator measures were applied to monitoring data collected between 2006 and 2008. The selected measures and indices were evaluated for their ability to characterize informal trail impacts at site and landscape scales. Results demonstrate the utility of indicator measures in capturing different characteristics of the informal trail problem, though several metrics are strongly related to each other. The two fragmentation indices were able to depict fragmentation without being too sensitive to changes in one constituent parameter. This study points to the need for a multiparameter approach to informal trail monitoring and integration with other monitoring data. Implications for monitoring programs and research are discussed.

Sustaining visitor use in protected areas: future opportunities in recreation ecology research based on the USA experience.

Recreation ecology, the study of environmental consequences of outdoor recreation activities and their effective management, is a relatively new field of scientific study having emerged over the last 50 years. During this time, numerous studies have improved our understanding of how use-related, environmental and managerial factors affect ecological conditions and processes. Most studies have focused on vegetation and soil responses to recreation-related trampling on trails and recreation sites using indicators such as percent vegetation cover and exposed mineral soil. This applied approach has and will continue to yield important information for land managers. However, for the field to advance, more attention needs to be given to other ecosystem attributes and to the larger aspects of environmental conservation occurring at landscape scales. This article is an effort at initiating a dialog on needed advances in the field. We begin by reviewing broadly generalizable knowledge of recreation ecology, to separate what is known from research gaps. Then, based on the authors' perspective of research in the USA and North America, several research directions are suggested as essential for continued progress in this field including theoretical development, broadening scale, integration with other disciplines, and examination of synergistic effects.

Comparing hiking, mountain biking and horse riding impacts on vegetation and soils in Australia and the United States of America.

Hiking, horse riding and mountain biking are popular in protected areas in Australia and the United States of America. To help inform the often contentious deliberations about use of protected areas for these three types of activities, we review recreation ecology research in both countries. Many impacts on vegetation, soils and trails are similar for the three activities, although there can be differences in severity. Impacts include damage to existing trails, soil erosion, compaction and nutrification, changes in hydrology, trail widening, exposure of roots, rocks and bedrock. There can be damage to plants including reduction in vegetation height and biomass, changes in species composition, creation of informal trails and the spread of weeds and plant pathogens. Due to differences in evolutionary history, impacts on soil and vegetation can be greater in Australia than in the USA. There are specific social and biophysical impacts of horses such as those associated with manure and urine, grazing and the construction and use of tethering yards and fences. Mountain bike specific impacts include soil and vegetation damage from skidding and the construction of unauthorised trails, jumps, bridges and other trail technical features. There are gaps in the current research that should be filled by additional research: (1) on horse and mountain bike impacts to complement those on hiking. The methods used need to reflect patterns of actual usage and be suitable for robust statistical analysis; (2) that directly compares types and severity of impacts among activities; and (3) on the potential for each activity to contribute to the spread of weeds and plant pathogens. Additional research will assist managers and users of protected areas in understanding the relative impacts of these activities, and better ways to manage them. It may not quell the debates among users, managers and conservationists, but it will help put it on a more scientific footing.