Cognitive Impact of Cerebellar Non-invasive Stimulation in a Patient With Schizophrenia.

Cerebellum plays a role in the regulation of cognitive processes. Cerebellar alterations could explain cognitive impairments in schizophrenia. We describe the case of a 50 years old patient with schizophrenia whom underwent cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). In order to study the effect of cerebellar stimulation on cognitive functions, the patient underwent a neuropsychological assessment and an eyeblink conditioning (EBC) protocol. Although the effect of brain stimulation cannot be only assessed in a single-case study, our results suggest that cerebellar stimulation may have an effect on a broad range of cognitive functions typically impaired in patients with schizophrenia, including verbal episodic, short term, and working memory. In addition to neuropsychological tests, we evaluated the cerebellar function by performing EBC before and after tDCS. Our data suggest that tDCS can improve EBC. Further clinical trials are required for better understanding of how cerebellar stimulation can modulate cognitive processes in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls.

A subcortical circuit linking the cerebellum to the basal ganglia engaged in vocal learning.

Speech is a complex sensorimotor skill, and vocal learning involves both the basal ganglia and the cerebellum. These subcortical structures interact indirectly through their respective loops with thalamo-cortical and brainstem networks, and directly via subcortical pathways, but the role of their interaction during sensorimotor learning remains undetermined. While songbirds and their song-dedicated basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuitry offer a unique opportunity to study subcortical circuits involved in vocal learning, the cerebellar contribution to avian song learning remains unknown. We demonstrate that the cerebellum provides a strong input to the song-related basal ganglia nucleus in zebra finches. Cerebellar signals are transmitted to the basal ganglia via a disynaptic connection through the thalamus and then conveyed to their cortical target and to the premotor nucleus controlling song production. Finally, cerebellar lesions impair juvenile song learning, opening new opportunities to investigate how subcortical interactions between the cerebellum and basal ganglia contribute to sensorimotor learning.

mGlu1 receptor canonical signaling pathway contributes to the opening of the orphan GluD2 receptor.

The orphan Glutamate receptor Delta2 (GluD2) intrinsic ion channel activity is indirectly triggered by glutamate through stimulation of the metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGlu1), in cerebellar Purkinje cells. However, the mechanisms of GluD2 ion channel opening are entirely unknown. In this work, we investigated the signaling pathways underlying the mGlu1-induced GluD2 current, performing whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings from mGlu1 and GluD2 transfected HEK293 cells. We show that the activation of GluD2 channels via DHPG-induced mGlu1 stimulation is Gαq-dependent. Moreover, inhibition of the downstream components of the mGlu1 canonical signaling pathway PLC and PKC with U73122 and GF109203X, respectively, strongly reduced the DHPG-induced GluD2 current. These results were further confirmed on endogenous receptors at the Parallel Fiber - Purkinje Cell cerebellar synapse, indicating that the opening of the GluD2 channel by mGlu1 receptor mobilizes the canonical Gq-PLC-PKC pathway. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors, 5 years on'.

Type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu1) trigger the gating of GluD2 delta glutamate receptors.

The orphan GluD2 receptor belongs to the ionotropic glutamate receptor family but does not bind glutamate. Ligand-gated GluD2 currents have never been evidenced, and whether GluD2 operates as an ion channel has been a long-standing question. Here, we show that GluD2 gating is triggered by type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors, both in a heterologous expression system and in Purkinje cells. Thus, GluD2 is not only an adhesion molecule at synapses but also works as a channel. This gating mechanism reveals new properties of glutamate receptors that emerge from their interaction and opens unexpected perspectives regarding synaptic transmission and plasticity.

Novel protective effect of mifepristone on detrimental GABAA receptor activity to immature Purkinje neurons.

Immature Purkinje neurons are particularly vulnerable cells. They survive in cerebellar slice cultures under treatment by the synthetic steroid mifepristone (RU486) that depolarizes them at this age. The present study aims at understanding the mechanism underlying this neuroprotective effect. In the developing cerebellum, the role of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in neuron survival is unknown. In 3-d-old mouse cerebellar slice cultures, we show that GABA(A) receptor activation is depolarizing and excitatory. Antagonists of GABA(A) receptors rescue Purkinje neurons, demonstrating that GABA is endogenously released in this preparation and is toxic. Mifepristone likely protects these neurons by reversing GABA(A) receptor-mediated chloride fluxes and reducing their driving force. Neuroprotection by mifepristone is dose-dependently decreased by the agonist of GABA(A) receptors muscimol and by caffeine, an agonist of internal calcium store release. Moreover, the survival induced by neomycin, an inhibitor of calcium release, is partially reversed by muscimol. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibitor SB239063 also rescues Purkinje neurons. In summary, we propose that when GABA is depolarizing, mifepristone protects Purkinje neurons by shunting GABA responses and probably chloride fluxes, by inhibiting p38 MAPK activity and likely internal calcium store release. A new and nonhormonal effect of mifepristone is thus revealed.

Purkinje cell NMDA receptors assume a key role in synaptic gain control in the mature cerebellum.

A classic view in cerebellar physiology holds that Purkinje cells do not express functional NMDA receptors and that, therefore, postsynaptic NMDA receptors are not involved in the induction of long-term depression (LTD) at parallel fiber (PF) to Purkinje cell synapses. Recently, it has been demonstrated that functional NMDA receptors are postsynaptically expressed at climbing fiber (CF) to Purkinje cell synapses in mice, reaching full expression levels at ∼2 months after birth. Here, we show that in the mature mouse cerebellum LTD (induced by paired PF and CF activation), but not long-term potentiation (LTP; PF stimulation alone) at PF to Purkinje cell synapses is blocked by bath application of the NMDA receptor antagonist D-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (D-APV). A blockade of LTD, but not LTP, was also observed when the noncompetitive NMDA channel blocker MK-801 was added to the patch-pipette saline, suggesting that postsynaptically expressed NMDA receptors are required for LTD induction. Using confocal calcium imaging, we show that CF-evoked calcium transients in dendritic spines are reduced in the presence of D-APV. This observation confirms that NMDA receptor signaling occurs at CF synapses and suggests that NMDA receptor-mediated calcium transients at the CF input site might contribute to LTD induction. Finally, we performed dendritic patch-clamp recordings from rat Purkinje cells. Dendritically recorded CF responses were reduced when D-APV was bath applied. Together, these data suggest that the late developmental expression of postsynaptic NMDA receptors at CF synapses onto Purkinje cells is associated with a switch toward an NMDA receptor-dependent LTD induction mechanism.

Death and survival of heterozygous Lurcher Purkinje cells in vitro.

The differentiation and survival of heterozygous Lurcher (+/Lc) Purkinje cells in vitro was examined as a model system for studying how chronic ionic stress affects neuronal differentiation and survival. The Lurcher mutation in the delta2 glutamate receptor (GluRdelta2) converts an orphan receptor into a membrane channel that constitutively passes an inward cation current. In the GluRdelta2(+/Lc) mutant, Purkinje cell dendritic differentiation is disrupted and the cells degenerate following the first week of postnatal development. To determine if the GluRdelta2(+/Lc) Purkinje cell phenotype is recapitulated in vitro, +/+, and +/Lc Purkinje cells from postnatal Day 0 pups were grown in either isolated cell or cerebellar slice cultures. GluRdelta2(+/+) and GluRdelta2(+/Lc) Purkinje cells appeared to develop normally through the first 7 days in vitro (DIV), but by 11 DIV GluRdelta2(+/Lc) Purkinje cells exhibited a significantly higher cation leak current. By 14 DIV, GluRdelta2(+/Lc) Purkinje cell dendrites were stunted and the number of surviving GluRdelta2(+/Lc) Purkinje cells was reduced by 75% compared to controls. However, treatment of +/Lc cerebellar cultures with 1-naphthyl acetyl spermine increased +/Lc Purkinje cell survival to wild type levels. These results support the conclusion that the Lurcher mutation in GluRdelta2 induces cell autonomous defects in differentiation and survival. The establishment of a tissue culture system for studying cell injury and death mechanisms in a relatively simple system like GluRdelta2(+/Lc) Purkinje cells will provide a valuable model for studying how the induction of a chronic inward cation current in a single cell type affects neuronal differentiation and survival.

NMDA receptor contribution to the climbing fiber response in the adult mouse Purkinje cell.

Among integrative neurons displaying long-term synaptic plasticity, adult Purkinje cells seemed to be an exception by lacking functional NMDA receptors (NMDA-Rs). Although numerous anatomical studies have shown both NR1 and NR2 NMDA-R subunits in adult Purkinje cells, patch-clamp studies failed to detect any NMDA currents. Using more recent pharmacological and immunodetection tools, we demonstrate here that Purkinje cells from adult mice respond to exogenous NMDA application and that postsynaptic NMDA-Rs carry part of the climbing fiber-mediated EPSC (CF-EPSC), with undetectable contribution from presynaptic or polysynaptic NMDA currents. We also detect NR2-A/B subunits in adult Purkinje cells by immunohistochemistry. The NMDA-mediated CF-EPSC is barely detectable before 3 weeks postnatal. From the end of the third week, the number of cells displaying the NMDA-mediated CF-EPSC rapidly increases. Soon, this EPSC becomes detectable in all the Purkinje cells but is still very small. Its amplitude continues to increase until 12 weeks after birth. In mature Purkinje cells, we show that the NMDA-Rs contribute to the depolarizing plateau of complex spikes and increase their number of spikelets. Together, these observations demonstrate that mature Purkinje cells express functional NMDA receptors that become detectable in CF-EPSCs at approximately 21 d after birth and control the complex spike waveform.

Short-term retrograde inhibition of GABAergic synaptic currents in rat Purkinje cells is mediated by endogenous cannabinoids.

Depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI) is a form of short-term plasticity of GABAergic synaptic transmission that is found in cerebellar Purkinje cells and hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells. DSI involves the release of a calcium-dependent retrograde messenger by the somatodendritic compartment of the postsynaptic cell. Both glutamate and endogenous cannabinoids have been proposed as retrograde messenger. Here we show that, in cerebellar parasagittal slices, type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs) are expressed at high levels in axons of GABAergic interneurons and in presynaptic terminals onto Purkinje cells. Application of the cannabinoid antagonist AM-251 (500 nm) leads to the abolition of the DSI of evoked currents (eIPSCs) recorded in paired recordings and to a strong reduction of the DSI of TTX-insensitive miniature events (mIPSCs) recorded from Purkinje cells. Furthermore, the CB1R agonist WIN 55-212,2 (5 microm) induces a presynaptic inhibition of synaptic currents similar to that occurring during DSI, as well as an occlusion of DSI after stimulation of Purkinje cells. Moreover, WIN 55-212,2 reduces the calcium transients evoked in presumed presynaptic varicosities by short trains of action potentials. Our results indicate that DSI is mediated by the activation of presynaptic CB1Rs and that an endogenous cannabinoid is a likely candidate retrograde messenger in this preparation. They further suggest that DSI involves distinct presynaptic modifications for eIPSCs and mIPSCs, including an inhibition of action potential-evoked calcium rises.